Roman Empire

The vast political entity that dominated the Mediterranean world from 27 BCE to 476 CE (Western) and 1453 CE (Eastern/Byzantine), providing the political, cultural, and infrastructural context for Jesus’s life, the spread of early Christianity, and New Testament writings. At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from Britain to Mesopotamia, governing diverse peoples under a single system of law, connected by roads, unified by Latin and Greek languages, and protected by history’s most formidable military.

Historical Overview

Roman Republic (509-27 BCE)

Foundation:

• Founded 509 BCE after expelling Etruscan kings
• Senate-led government
• Consuls, tribunes, republican institutions

Expansion:

• Conquered Italy
• Punic Wars defeated Carthage (264-146 BCE)
• Conquered Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor
• Added Gaul (France), Spain, North Africa

Crisis and Civil Wars:

• Social upheaval, wealth inequality
• Marius vs. Sulla civil wars
• Julius Caesar’s dictatorship (49-44 BCE)
• Caesar assassinated (44 BCE)
• Octavian (Augustus) vs. Mark Antony
• Battle of Actium (31 BCE): Octavian victorious

Roman Empire (27 BCE - 476 CE)

Augustus (27 BCE - 14 CE):

• First emperor (though called Princeps—“first citizen”)
• Ended civil wars, established Pax Romana
• Luke 2:1: “In those days Caesar Augustus issued a decree that a census should be taken of the entire Roman world”
• Jesus born during his reign

Pax Romana (27 BCE - 180 CE):

• “Roman Peace”
• Relative stability, minimal major wars
• Trade flourished
• Infrastructure expanded
• Christianity spread during this period

Key Emperors (New Testament Period):

1. Augustus (27 BCE - 14 CE):

   • First emperor
   • Jesus’s birth (c. 4 BCE)

2. Tiberius (14-37 CE):

   • Emperor during Jesus’s ministry
   • Luke 3:1: “In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar…”
   • Pontius Pilate served under Tiberius

3. Caligula (37-41 CE):

   • Tyrannical, declared himself divine
   • Threatened to place statue in Jerusalem Temple
   • Assassinated

4. Claudius (41-54 CE):

   • Acts 18:2: Expelled Jews from Rome
   • Relatively stable reign

5. Nero (54-68 CE):

   • Persecuted Christians after Great Fire of Rome (64 CE)
   • Blamed Christians for fire
   • Tradition: Peter and Paul martyred under Nero
   • Revelation possibly written during/after Nero

6. Vespasian (69-79 CE):

   • Ended Year of Four Emperors
   • Began siege of Jerusalem (commanded by son Titus)

7. Titus (79-81 CE):

   • Destroyed Jerusalem and Temple (70 CE) as general under father
   • Brief reign as emperor

8. Domitian (81-96 CE):

   • Enforced emperor worship
   • Persecuted Christians
   • Revelation possibly written during his reign (traditionally)

Later Empire:

• Crisis of 3rd century (235-284 CE)
• Diocletian (284-305 CE): Reorganized empire, persecuted Christians
• Constantine (306-337 CE): Converted to Christianity, Edict of Milan (313 CE)
• Theodosius I (379-395 CE): Made Christianity official religion (380 CE)
• Empire split: Western (fell 476 CE) and Eastern/Byzantine (fell 1453 CE)

Geographic Extent

At Greatest Extent (c. 117 CE under Trajan)

Europe:

• Italy (heartland)
• Gaul (France)
• Spain (Hispania)
• Britain (Britannia)
• Greece (Achaea)
• Balkans (Illyria, Dacia, Moesia, Thrace)

North Africa:

• Egypt (breadbasket of empire)
• Cyrenaica (Libya)
• Africa Proconsularis (Tunisia, Algeria)
• Mauretania (Morocco, Algeria)

Middle East:

• Asia Minor (modern Turkey)
• Syria
• Judea/Palestine
• Arabia Petraea
• Mesopotamia (briefly)

Total Area:

• ~5 million square kilometers (1.9 million square miles)
• ~70 million people (25-30% of world population)

Government and Administration

Political Structure

Emperor (Imperator):

• Absolute ruler
• Held multiple titles: Augustus, Caesar, Pontifex Maximus (high priest)
• Theoretically “first among equals” but practically autocratic

Senate:

• Advisory body
• Lost most power under emperors
• Prestigious but limited real authority

Provinces:

• Senatorial provinces: Governed by proconsuls appointed by Senate
• Imperial provinces: Governed by legates appointed by emperor
• Judea: Initially client kingdom (Herod), then imperial province (6 CE)

Provincial Governors:

• Proconsul: Senatorial province
• Legate (Legatus Augusti): Imperial province
• Prefect/Procurator: Smaller provinces (like Judea under Pontius Pilate)

Legal System

Roman Law:

• Codified legal principles
• Rights of citizens vs. non-citizens
• Influenced Western legal systems

Roman Citizenship:

• Privileges: Vote (in Rome), legal protections, appeal to emperor
• Paul claimed Roman citizenship (Acts 22:25-29)
• Exempted from certain punishments (e.g., crucifixion)
• Acts 25:11: Paul appeals to Caesar

Courts:

• Local courts for minor matters
• Governor’s court for serious crimes
• Appeal to emperor possible for citizens

Military

Structure

Legions:

• Professional standing army
• ~5,000-6,000 soldiers per legion
• Heavily armed infantry (heavy armor, gladius sword, pilum javelin)
• Highly disciplined, trained

Auxiliaries:

• Non-citizen troops
• Cavalry, archers, light infantry
• Granted citizenship after service

Praetorian Guard:

• Emperor’s personal bodyguard
• Stationed in Rome
• Powerful politically

Military Presence in Judea

Stationed Forces:

• Cohorts stationed in Judea
• Headquarters: Caesarea Maritima
• Jerusalem garrison: Antonia Fortress (near Temple)
• Increased during festivals (risk of riots)

Role:

• Maintained order
• Suppressed revolts
• Collected taxes
• Enforced Roman authority

Conflicts with Jews:

• Cultural clashes (standards with images in Jerusalem)
• Taxation resentment
• Religious tensions
• Jewish Revolts (66-73 CE, 132-135 CE)

Economy

Trade and Commerce

Infrastructure:

• Roads: 250,000 miles of paved roads
  • “All roads lead to Rome”
  • Enabled travel, trade, military movement
  • Facilitated spread of Christianity
• Ports: Mediterranean (“Mare Nostrum”—“Our Sea”)
• Aqueducts: Water supply for cities

Currency:

• Denarius (silver coin)
• Sestertius, Aureus
• Standardized across empire
• “Render to Caesar” coin (Matthew 22:19-21)

Trade Goods:

• Grain from Egypt, North Africa
• Olive oil, wine
• Luxury goods from East (silk, spices)
• Slaves (conquered peoples, criminals)

Taxation:

• Direct taxes (land, poll tax)
• Indirect taxes (customs, sales)
• Tax collectors (publicans) despised
• Matthew was tax collector (Matthew 9:9)

Slavery

Prevalence:

• Perhaps 15-25% of population enslaved
• War captives, debt slaves, born into slavery
• Integral to economy

New Testament Context:

• Household slaves common
• Philemon: Paul returns runaway slave Onesimus
• Ephesians 6:5-9, Colossians 3:22-25: Instructions to slaves and masters
• Galatians 3:28: “Neither slave nor free” in Christ

Culture and Society

Languages

Latin:

• Official language of government, military, law
• Spoken in western provinces
• Pilate’s inscription on cross included Latin (John 19:20)

Greek (Koine):

• Common language (lingua franca) in eastern provinces
• Language of culture, philosophy, commerce
• New Testament written in Greek
• Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) used by Diaspora Jews

Local Languages:

• Aramaic (Judea, Syria)
• Coptic (Egypt)
• Others persisted locally

Religion

Roman Polytheism:

• Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Venus, etc.
• Syncretism: Absorbed foreign gods
• State cult: Emperor worship (especially after death)

Imperial Cult:

• Emperors worshiped as gods
• Oaths of loyalty to emperor
• Refusal = treason
• Christians persecuted for refusing

Religious Tolerance (with limits):

• Allowed local religions (religio licita)
• Judaism tolerated (special status)
• Christianity initially seen as Jewish sect, later distinct and illegal

Mystery Religions:

• Isis, Mithras, Cybele cults
• Personal salvation, initiation rituals
• Competed with Christianity

Social Hierarchy

Classes:

1. Emperor and Imperial Family: Top
2. Senators: Wealthy aristocracy
3. Equestrians: Wealthy business class
4. Plebeians: Common citizens
5. Freedmen: Former slaves
6. Slaves: Bottom

Patronage System:

• Patron-client relationships
• Mutual obligations
• Shaped social interactions

Daily Life

Urban Life:

• Large cities: Rome (1 million), Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus
• Insulae (apartment buildings)
• Public baths, theaters, amphitheaters
• Forums (marketplaces, civic centers)

Entertainment:

• Gladiatorial games
• Chariot races
• Theater
• “Bread and circuses” to pacify masses

Family:

• Paterfamilias (male head) had absolute authority
• Women had limited rights (improving over time)
• Arranged marriages

Roman Judea

Political History

63 BCE: Pompey conquers Jerusalem

• Judea becomes Roman client state

37-4 BCE: Herod the Great

• Client king, ruled with Roman support
• Rebuilt Temple magnificently
• Ruthless (Matthew 2: Massacre of innocents)

4 BCE: Herod’s kingdom divided among sons

• Archelaus: Judea, Samaria, Idumea (deposed 6 CE)
• Herod Antipas: Galilee, Perea (executed John the Baptist)
• Philip: Northern territories

6 CE - 66 CE: Direct Roman rule (with brief exception)

• Governors (prefects, later procurators)
• Pontius Pilate (26-36 CE): Crucified Jesus
• Growing tensions, messianic movements, revolts

66-73 CE: First Jewish Revolt

• Sparked by taxation, religious tensions
• Rome besieged Jerusalem (70 CE)
• Temple destroyed (70 CE)
• Masada fell (73 CE)

132-135 CE: Bar Kokhba Revolt

• Final major Jewish rebellion
• Jerusalem renamed Aelia Capitolina
• Judea renamed Syria Palaestina
• Jews banned from Jerusalem

Religious Tensions

Jewish-Roman Conflicts:

• Monotheism vs. polytheism/emperor worship
• Image prohibition vs. Roman standards, statues
• Temple sanctity vs. Roman authority
• Sabbath observance vs. Roman demands
• Messiah hope vs. Roman rule

Compromises and Concessions:

• Jews exempt from emperor worship
• Sabbath observance respected (usually)
• Temple controlled by Jewish priests (until 70 CE)
• Special privileges (e.g., military exemptions)

Flash Points:

• Pilate brought standards into Jerusalem (removed after protest)
• Caligula threatened to install statue in Temple
• Taxation resentment
• Procurators’ insensitivity

Christianity in the Roman Empire

Early Persecution

Under Nero (64 CE):

• Blamed Christians for Great Fire of Rome
• Brutal persecution
• Peter and Paul martyred (tradition)

Sporadic Persecution:

• Local, not empire-wide initially
• Refusal to worship emperor = atheism, treason
• Social ostracism

Major Persecutions:

• Domitian (81-96 CE)
• Decius (250 CE)
• Diocletian (303-311 CE): “Great Persecution”

Reasons for Persecution

Religious:

• Refused emperor worship
• Exclusive monotheism offensive

Social:

• Withdrew from public religious festivals
• Seen as antisocial
• Rumors of cannibalism (Eucharist), incest (called each other brother/sister)

Political:

• Loyalty questioned
• Separate community identity
• Apocalyptic language seemed seditious

Spread Despite Persecution

Advantages of Roman World:

• Roads: Easy travel for missionaries
• Pax Romana: Relative safety
• Common languages: Greek and Latin
• Urban centers: Concentrated populations
• Diaspora Jews: Initial audience in synagogues

Paul’s Missionary Journeys:

• Used Roman roads and sea routes
• Visited major cities (Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi, Rome)
• Roman citizenship protected him (Acts 22:25-29)
• Appealed to Caesar (Acts 25:11)

Christian Growth:

• Despite persecution, Christianity spread
• All social classes, especially urban poor and slaves
• Attracted women (more equal treatment)
• Martyrs inspired others

Constantine and Legitimization

Edict of Milan (313 CE):

• Constantine and Licinius
• Legalized Christianity
• Ended persecution

Constantine’s Conversion:

• Vision before Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 CE)
• “In this sign, conquer” (In hoc signo vinces)
• Chi-Rho symbol

Imperial Support:

• Church buildings constructed
• Bishops gained status
• Christianity favored

Council of Nicaea (325 CE):

• Constantine convened
• Addressed Arian controversy
• Nicene Creed

Theodosius I (380 CE):

• Made Christianity official state religion
• Paganism banned

Biblical References

Gospels

Luke 2:1: “In those days Caesar Augustus issued a decree that a census should be taken of the entire Roman world.”

Matthew 22:17-21: “Tell us then, what is your opinion? Is it right to pay the imperial tax to Caesar or not?… Give back to Caesar what is Caesar’s, and to God what is God’s.”

John 19:15: “Pilate… ‘Shall I crucify your king?’ The chief priests answered, ‘We have no king but Caesar.’”

Acts

Acts 16:37: Paul: “They beat us publicly without a trial, even though we are Roman citizens.”

Acts 22:25-29: Paul claims citizenship to avoid flogging.

Acts 25:11: “I appeal to Caesar!”

Acts 28: Paul in Rome, under house arrest.

Epistles

Romans 13:1-7: “Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities.”

1 Peter 2:13-17: “Submit yourselves for the Lord’s sake to every human authority.”

Philippians 4:22: “All God’s people here send you greetings, especially those who belong to Caesar’s household.”

Revelation

Symbolic Opposition:

• “Babylon” = Rome (Revelation 17-18)
• Beast with seven heads = Rome (seven hills)
• Martyrs under altar (Revelation 6:9-11)
• Critique of imperial power

Legacy

Lasting Impact

Legal:

• Roman law foundation of Western legal systems
• Concepts of justice, citizenship, contracts

Language:

• Latin basis for Romance languages
• Legal, medical, scientific terminology

Infrastructure:

• Roads still used (some modern roads follow Roman routes)
• Aqueducts, bridges, buildings remain

Political:

• Models of governance
• Senate, republic concepts

Christianity:

• Spread throughout empire
• Latin as church language (Western)
• Papal authority modeled on Roman systems

Significance

For Christianity, the Roman Empire was simultaneously:

• Oppressor: Crucified Jesus, martyred apostles and believers
• Vehicle: Roads, peace, language enabled Gospel spread
• Audience: “To the ends of the earth” meant Roman world
• Adversary: Imperial cult, persecution
• Convert: Eventually adopted Christianity

The New Testament was written in a Roman world, addressed to Roman subjects, using Roman infrastructure. Jesus was born under Augustus, ministered under Tiberius, crucified by Pilate, and his followers spread his message along Roman roads, across Roman seas, to Roman cities.

When Paul wrote “all roads lead to Rome” could have been understood literally—and providentially, as those roads carried the Gospel. When Jesus said “Render to Caesar what is Caesar’s,” he spoke in an occupied land where Caesar’s image was on every coin. When John wrote Revelation, Rome was “Babylon the Great,” oppressor of God’s people, destined to fall.

The irony is profound: Rome crucified Christ, then adopted him. The empire that killed martyrs became the empire that built churches. The capital that once fed Christians to lions became Christendom’s center. The military power that suppressed the faith became its protector.

The Roman Empire fell in the West (476 CE), but the faith that arose within it endures. The roads crumbled, the legions disbanded, the emperors forgotten, but the Gospel preached in Roman cities to Roman citizens still resounds. As Augustine wrote during Rome’s decline: earthly cities fall, but the City of God remains forever.

Rome’s legacy includes cathedrals rising above Forum ruins, Latin liturgy echoing in stone halls, popes inheriting Caesar’s titles, and a faith born in a backwater province of the empire now reaching far beyond Rome’s farthest frontiers. The empire passed away; the kingdom it tried to suppress only grew.