The Eucharist: Christ’s Body and Blood

“And he took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and gave it to them, saying, ‘This is my body, which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me.’ And likewise the cup after they had eaten, saying, ‘This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood’” (Luke 22:19-20).

The Eucharist—also known as Holy Communion, the Lord’s Supper, or the Mass—stands as Christianity’s central act of worship, instituted by Jesus Christ on the night before His crucifixion. With bread and wine (or grape juice), Christians worldwide reenact Jesus’ Last Supper, remembering His sacrifice, proclaiming His death, anticipating His return, and encountering His presence. Yet this simple meal of bread and cup has generated some of Christianity’s deepest theological divisions: Is Christ truly present in the elements? If so, how? Is it sacrifice or memorial? Sacrament or ordinance? Catholics believe in transubstantiation—the bread and wine become Christ’s actual body and blood. Orthodox Christians affirm the Real Presence through divine mystery. Lutherans hold consubstantiation—Christ is present in, with, and under the elements. Reformed Christians see spiritual presence—Christ is present by faith, not physically. Baptists and evangelicals view it as memorial—symbolic remembrance of Christ’s sacrifice. Across every denomination, the Eucharist remains central—obeying Christ’s command, proclaiming His death, communing with Him, and uniting with the body of believers.

Biblical Institution: The Last Supper

The Synoptic Accounts

Matthew 26:26-29: “Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and after blessing it broke it and gave it to the disciples, and said, ‘Take, eat; this is my body.’ And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks he gave it to them, saying, ‘Drink of it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you I will not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father’s kingdom.’”

Mark 14:22-25: Similar account, emphasizing “This is my body” and “This is my blood of the covenant.”

Luke 22:19-20: Adds the crucial command: “Do this in remembrance of me.”

The Pauline Account

1 Corinthians 11:23-26: Paul recounts the institution, received directly from the Lord:

“For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, ‘This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.’ In the same way also he took the cup, after supper, saying, ‘This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me.’ For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes.”

Key Elements:

1. “This is my body” - Identification of bread with Christ’s body
2. “This is my blood” - Identification of wine with Christ’s blood
3. “Do this in remembrance of me” - Command to continue the practice
4. “Proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes” - Memorial and eschatological aspect
5. “The new covenant in my blood” - Connection to covenant theology

The Johannine Discourse

John 6:48-58 (The Bread of Life Discourse): “I am the bread of life. Your fathers ate the manna in the wilderness, and they died. This is the bread that comes down from heaven, so that one may eat of it and not die. I am the living bread that came down from heaven. If anyone eats of this bread, he will live forever. And the bread that I will give for the life of the world is my flesh… Truly, truly, I say to you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you have no life in you. Whoever feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, and I will raise him up on the last day. For my flesh is true food, and my blood is true drink. Whoever feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood abides in me, and I in him.”

Interpretation Debates:

• Sacramental (Catholic/Orthodox): Jesus is speaking literally about the Eucharist
• Spiritual (Protestant): Jesus is speaking metaphorically about faith in Him

Passover Context

The Last Supper took place during Passover:

• Jesus uses the Passover meal elements (unleavened bread, wine)
• Reinterprets them: The bread is His body (the true Passover Lamb), the wine is His blood (establishing the new covenant)
• Fulfills and supersedes the old Passover—Jesus is the Lamb who takes away the sin of the world

The Early Church Practice

Acts of the Apostles

Acts 2:42: “And they devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and the fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers.”

“Breaking of bread” likely refers to the Eucharist, a regular practice of the early Christians.

Acts 20:7: “On the first day of the week, when we were gathered together to break bread, Paul talked with them…”

Christians gathered on Sunday (the day of resurrection) for the Eucharist.

Paul’s Instructions

1 Corinthians 11:27-34: “Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty concerning the body and blood of the Lord. Let a person examine himself, then, and so eat of the bread and drink of the cup. For anyone who eats and drinks without discerning the body eats and drinks judgment on himself.”

Key Teachings:

1. Self-examination: Believers must approach the Eucharist with repentance and faith
2. Discerning the body: Recognizing the sacred nature of the Eucharist (and/or the church as Christ’s body)
3. Judgment: Unworthy participation brings judgment

The Didache (c. 50-120 CE)

One of the earliest Christian writings describes the Eucharist:

• Thanksgiving prayers over the cup and the bread
• Only the baptized may partake
• Confession of sins before partaking
• Regular celebration on the Lord’s Day (Sunday)

Theological Views: How is Christ Present?

1. Transubstantiation (Catholic)

Definition: The bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ. The “substance” changes, though the “accidents” (appearance, taste, texture) remain.

Catholic Teaching:

• At the consecration (when the priest says “This is my body”), the bread and wine are transformed into Christ’s body and blood
• This is a true, real, substantial presence—not symbolic
• The elements retain the appearance of bread and wine, but their essence has changed
• Defined dogma at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) and Council of Trent (1551)

Scriptural Basis (Catholic view):

• Jesus said “This is my body,” not “This represents my body”
• John 6:51-58: Jesus insists His flesh is “true food” and His blood is “true drink”—many disciples left because they couldn’t accept this teaching
• 1 Corinthians 11:27: Being “guilty concerning the body and blood” implies real presence

Theological Rationale:

• The Eucharist is a sacrifice—the re-presentation (not repetition) of Calvary
• Christ is offered to the Father in an unbloody manner
• The Mass makes present the once-for-all sacrifice of the cross

Adoration: Because Christ is truly present, Catholics practice Eucharistic adoration—worshiping the consecrated Host.

Reservation: The consecrated Host is reserved in the tabernacle for adoration and for the sick.

2. Consubstantiation / Sacramental Union (Lutheran)

Definition: Christ is present “in, with, and under” the bread and wine. The elements remain bread and wine, but Christ’s body and blood are also present.

Lutheran Teaching:

• Christ’s real presence, but not through transubstantiation
• The bread remains bread; the wine remains wine
• Yet Christ’s body and blood are truly present alongside the bread and wine
• The union exists only during the sacrament (no adoration of reserved elements)

Martin Luther: “It is the true body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ under the bread and wine, instituted by Christ himself for us Christians to eat and drink.”

Scriptural Basis:

• Jesus’ words: “This is my body”
• But Scripture doesn’t explain how—Lutheran theology maintains the mystery

Reject Transubstantiation: Lutherans reject the philosophical distinctions (substance vs. accidents) as unnecessary.

3. Spiritual/Pneumatic Presence (Reformed/Calvinist)

Definition: Christ is spiritually present by the Holy Spirit. Believers truly receive Christ, but not bodily or physically.

Reformed Teaching (Calvin):

• Christ is in heaven at the right hand of God, bodily
• His body does not descend into the elements
• By the Holy Spirit, believers are lifted up to heaven to commune with Christ
• Real spiritual nourishment, not symbolic, but not physical ingestion of Christ’s flesh

John Calvin: “The flesh of Christ is like a rich and inexhaustible fountain that pours into us the life springing from the Godhead into itself… Even though it seems unbelievable that Christ’s flesh, separated from us by such great distance, penetrates to us, so that it becomes our food, let us remember how far the secret power of the Holy Spirit towers above all our senses.”

Scriptural Basis:

• Christ’s ascension: His body is in heaven (Acts 1:9-11)
• John 6:63: “It is the Spirit who gives life; the flesh is no help at all”—spiritual, not physical eating
• Christ’s presence by faith through the Holy Spirit

Frequency: Many Reformed churches celebrate communion quarterly or monthly, not weekly.

4. Memorial/Symbolic (Baptist/Evangelical)

Definition: The bread and wine are symbols representing Christ’s body and blood. The Eucharist is a memorial—remembering Christ’s sacrifice, not a means of grace conveying Christ’s presence.

Baptist/Evangelical Teaching:

• “This is my body” means “This represents my body”
• The bread and wine remain bread and wine
• Participants remember Christ’s death and proclaim it
• The ordinance (not sacrament) is an act of obedience and remembrance
• Christ is present among believers, but not in the elements

Scriptural Basis:

• “Do this in remembrance of me”—the command is to remember, not to re-sacrifice
• Jesus often used symbolic language (“I am the door,” “I am the vine”)—“This is my body” is similarly symbolic
• Hebrews 9:28: “Christ, having been offered once to bear the sins of many”—no re-offering

Reject “Sacrament”: Many evangelicals call it an “ordinance” (a command to obey) rather than a “sacrament” (a means of grace).

Open or Closed Communion:

• Some Baptist churches practice closed communion (only members of that local church)
• Many evangelical churches practice open communion (all believers)

5. Mystery (Orthodox)

Definition: Christ is truly present, but how is a mystery. The Orthodox affirm the Real Presence without defining the mechanism.

Orthodox Teaching:

• The bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ
• This occurs through the epiclesis (invocation of the Holy Spirit)
• The transformation is a divine mystery, not explained by philosophical categories
• Reject the term “transubstantiation” as Western scholasticism
• Emphasize the mystical union with Christ

Divine Liturgy: The entire Liturgy is a mystical participation in Christ’s death, resurrection, and ascension. The Eucharist is the climax, where heaven and earth meet.

Communion in Both Kinds: Orthodox always give both bread and wine (intincted—bread dipped in wine, given by spoon).

Theological Significance

1. Memorial (Anamnesis)

“Do this in remembrance of me” (Luke 22:19).

All Christians agree: The Eucharist remembers Christ’s sacrifice.

More Than Mental Recall: Biblical “remembrance” (Hebrew zikkaron, Greek anamnesis) is not mere mental recall but a re-presentation, a making present of the past event.

2. Proclamation

“For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes” (1 Corinthians 11:26).

The Eucharist proclaims the gospel—Christ died for sins, rose again, will return.

3. Communion (Koinonia)

“The cup of blessing that we bless, is it not a participation in the blood of Christ? The bread that we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ?” (1 Corinthians 10:16).

Believers commune with Christ and with each other. The Eucharist unites the Body of Christ (the Church).

“Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Corinthians 10:17).

4. Sacrifice (Catholic/Orthodox View)

Catholic Teaching: The Mass is a sacrifice—the same sacrifice as Calvary, re-presented in an unbloody manner. Christ is offered to the Father; believers participate in His offering.

Protestant Objection: Hebrews 10:10-14 says Christ’s sacrifice was “once for all.” The Mass, if it’s a sacrifice, repeats what Christ finished on the cross.

Catholic Response: The Mass doesn’t repeat Calvary; it makes present the one sacrifice. It’s a participation in the eternal offering of Christ.

5. Covenant

“This cup is the new covenant in my blood” (1 Corinthians 11:25).

The Eucharist establishes and renews the new covenant. Just as the old covenant was ratified with blood (Exodus 24:8), the new covenant is established by Christ’s blood.

6. Eschatological Anticipation

“I tell you I will not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father’s kingdom” (Matthew 26:29).

The Eucharist looks forward to the Messianic banquet, the Marriage Supper of the Lamb (Revelation 19:9). It’s a foretaste of the heavenly feast.

Practical Questions

Who May Partake?

Catholic:

• Only baptized Catholics in a state of grace (having confessed mortal sins)
• Non-Catholics generally excluded (though exceptions exist)
• Closed communion

Orthodox:

• Only baptized Orthodox Christians
• After confession and preparation
• Closed communion

Lutheran:

• Baptized Christians who believe in the Real Presence
• Often closed or partially closed communion

Reformed:

• Baptized believers who have made profession of faith
• Often open to all Christians in good standing

Baptist/Evangelical:

• Varies: Some practice closed communion (only church members), most practice open communion (all believers)
• Typically those who have made a personal profession of faith

Frequency of Celebration

Catholic/Orthodox:

• Daily Mass/Liturgy (Catholics)
• Weekly Divine Liturgy (Orthodox)
• Eucharist is the center of worship

Lutheran:

• Weekly or bi-weekly in many Lutheran churches
• Increasingly frequent

Reformed:

• Historically quarterly or monthly
• Many churches moving toward more frequent (monthly or weekly)

Baptist/Evangelical:

• Monthly or quarterly in many churches
• Some celebrate more frequently

Elements: Bread and Wine or Grape Juice?

Catholic/Orthodox/Lutheran/Reformed:

• Wine (alcoholic)
• Some allow grape juice for those with alcohol issues

Baptist/Evangelical:

• Many use grape juice (due to temperance movement influence)
• Concern for recovering alcoholics, children

Communion of Both Kinds

Catholic:

• Historically, laity received only bread; clergy received both
• Since Vatican II (1960s), laity may receive both (though bread alone is still common)

Orthodox:

• Always both kinds (intincted—bread dipped in wine, given by spoon)

Protestant:

• Both kinds for all

Controversies and Divisions

The Reformation Divide

The Eucharist was a major point of contention during the Reformation:

Luther vs. Zwingli (Marburg Colloquy, 1529):

• Luther insisted on Real Presence (“This is my body”)
• Zwingli argued for symbolic memorial (“This represents my body”)
• Could not agree; Protestants divided

Trent’s Condemnations (1551)

The Catholic Council of Trent condemned Protestant views:

• Transubstantiation is defined dogma
• The Mass is a true sacrifice
• Denying these is anathema

Ongoing Ecumenical Dialogues

Catholic-Lutheran Joint Declaration (1999): Addressed justification, but Eucharistic differences remain unresolved.

Intercommunion Debates: Can Catholics and Protestants share communion? Generally no—differences in understanding are too significant.

Modern Practices and Challenges

Contemporary Worship

Liturgical Churches (Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican):

• The Eucharist is the center of worship
• Formal liturgy, vestments, prescribed prayers

Non-Liturgical Churches (Baptist, Pentecostal, Evangelical):

• Communion may be secondary to preaching
• Informal, simple observance
• Emphasis on personal reflection

Online Communion (COVID-19 Era)

The Question: Can communion be celebrated online, with participants at home?

Responses:

• Catholic/Orthodox/High Church: No—the Eucharist requires physical gathering and consecrated elements
• Some Protestants: Yes—the important thing is remembering Christ, which can be done remotely
• Debate continues: What is the essence of the Eucharist? Physical presence, or spiritual unity?

Gluten-Free and Non-Alcoholic Options

Accommodations:

• Gluten-free hosts for those with celiac disease (Catholic Church has strict rules—must contain some wheat)
• Grape juice for those who cannot consume alcohol
• Balancing tradition with inclusion

Comparative Perspective: Passover and the Eucharist

Continuity

The Eucharist is the Christian Passover:

• Passover lamb → Christ the Lamb
• Unleavened bread → Bread of Life
• Cup of redemption → Cup of salvation
• Remembering Exodus → Remembering the cross
• Anticipating the Promised Land → Anticipating the kingdom

Discontinuity

Judaism continues Passover; Christianity celebrates the Eucharist. Jews see no fulfillment in Jesus; Christians see the Eucharist as superseding Passover.

Significance

“This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Luke 22:20).

The Eucharist stands at the center of Christian worship—simple elements of bread and wine, yet charged with infinite meaning. In this meal, Christians encounter the mystery of Christ’s presence, whether through transubstantiation, spiritual communion, or memorial. The bread broken recalls the body broken on Calvary; the cup poured out remembers the blood poured out for the forgiveness of sins. The Eucharist proclaims: Christ has died, Christ is risen, Christ will come again.

For Catholics, the Mass is the pinnacle of worship, the re-presentation of Calvary, the moment when heaven touches earth and Christ becomes present under the forms of bread and wine. For Orthodox, the Divine Liturgy is mystical participation in the eternal worship of the Trinity, where the faithful are lifted into the heavenly realm. For Lutherans, the sacrament is Christ’s real presence given for the forgiveness of sins, a means of grace strengthening faith. For Reformed Christians, the Table is where, by the Spirit, believers are lifted to commune with the ascended Christ. For Baptists and evangelicals, the Lord’s Supper is memorial and proclamation, a simple yet profound act of obedience and remembrance.

Across all these views, the Eucharist unites Christians in obeying Christ’s command, in proclaiming His death, in communing with Him and with each other, in looking forward to His return. The bread and cup become the sign and seal of the new covenant, the tangible expression of Christ’s love, the foretaste of the heavenly banquet. As Paul wrote, “The cup of blessing that we bless, is it not a participation in the blood of Christ? The bread that we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ?” (1 Corinthians 10:16).

The Eucharist divides—transubstantiation or memorial, sacrament or ordinance, Real Presence or symbolic. Yet the Eucharist also unites—all Christians, in their varied traditions, gather around bread and wine, remembering the night Jesus was betrayed, proclaiming His death until He comes. And in that act, however understood, Christ is present—in the elements, in the assembly, in the Word, in the hearts of the faithful—calling His people to remember, to believe, to hope, to love.

“For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes” (1 Corinthians 11:26).