Messiah

“He said to them, ‘But who do you say that I am?’ Simon Peter replied, ‘You are the Christ, the Son of the living God’” (Matthew 16:15-16). The Messiah—from Hebrew Mashiach (anointed one), Greek Christos, Arabic Al-Masih—stands as the focal point of divergence between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, yet paradoxically unites all three in messianic expectation. For Judaism, the Messiah is the future king from David’s line who will restore Israel, rebuild the Temple, gather the exiles, and establish universal peace—a hope still awaited, unfulfilled by any claimant including Jesus. For Christianity, Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah whose first coming accomplished spiritual salvation through death and resurrection, with a second coming to consummate God’s kingdom—the cornerstone of Christian faith, the fulfillment of all prophecy. For Islam, Jesus (Isa) is honored as Al-Masih, a unique title among prophets, who will return before the Day of Judgment to defeat the Antichrist and establish justice—yet not as divine Son but as prophet and servant of Allah. The question “Who is the Messiah?” divides the Abrahamic faiths more sharply than any other, shaping Jewish longing, Christian proclamation, and Islamic eschatology.

Etymology and Origins

The Anointed One

Hebrew mashach means “to anoint”—to pour oil on someone’s head, consecrating them for sacred office. In ancient Israel, three offices received anointing:

Kings: “Then Samuel took the horn of oil and anointed him in the midst of his brothers. And the Spirit of the LORD rushed upon David from that day forward” (1 Samuel 16:13).

Priests: “And you shall anoint Aaron and his sons, and consecrate them, that they may serve me as priests” (Exodus 30:30).

Prophets (less common): Elijah commanded to anoint Elisha (1 Kings 19:16).

Mashiach (anointed one) could refer to any anointed person. But the Messiah—HaMashiach—refers to a specific future anointed king.

Greek Translation

The Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) translated mashiach as christos (anointed). Thus “Christ” is not Jesus’ last name but His title: Jesus the Christ, Jesus the Messiah, Jesus the Anointed One.

Old Testament Foundations

The Proto-Evangelium

The first messianic hint comes in Genesis 3:15, after the Fall:

“I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel.”

Christian interpretation: The seed of the woman (Christ) will crush Satan’s head, though suffering (the heel bruising) in the process.

The Davidic Covenant

God’s covenant with David becomes foundational:

“When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring after you, who shall come from your body, and I will establish his kingdom. He shall build a house for my name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. I will be to him a father, and he shall be to me a son” (2 Samuel 7:12-14).

An eternal kingdom, an eternal throne, a son of David who will reign forever—this shapes messianic expectation.

Prophetic Visions

Isaiah’s Wonderful Child (Isaiah 9:6-7): “For to us a child is born, to us a son is given; and the government shall be upon his shoulder, and his name shall be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. Of the increase of his government and of peace there will be no end, on the throne of David and over his kingdom, to establish it and to uphold it with justice and with righteousness from this time forth and forevermore.”

Titles include “Mighty God” and “Everlasting Father”—divine titles, Christians argue.

The Peaceable Kingdom (Isaiah 11:1-10): “There shall come forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse, and a branch from his roots shall bear fruit… The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the young kid… They shall not hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain; for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the LORD as the waters cover the sea.”

A descendant of Jesse (David’s father) will bring universal peace, transforming nature itself.

The Suffering Servant (Isaiah 53): “He was despised and rejected by men, a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief… But he was pierced for our transgressions; he was crushed for our iniquities; upon him was the chastisement that brought us peace, and with his wounds we are healed… Yet it was the will of the LORD to crush him; he has put him to grief; when his soul makes an offering for guilt, he shall see his offspring; he shall prolong his days… Out of the anguish of his soul he shall see and be satisfied; by his knowledge shall the righteous one, my servant, make many to be accounted righteous, and he shall bear their iniquities.”

Christians see Jesus’ crucifixion; Jews interpret as Israel personified or a righteous sufferer, not the Messiah.

Daniel’s Son of Man (Daniel 7:13-14): “I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him. And to him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom one that shall not be destroyed.”

A heavenly figure receiving universal, eternal dominion—Jesus’ favorite self-designation is “Son of Man.”

Jewish Messianic Expectation

Second Temple Period

By the time of Jesus, messianic expectation was intense and varied:

The Pharisees: Expected a Davidic king who would restore Israel’s political independence, rebuild the Temple, and bring Torah observance to all nations.

The Essenes (Dead Sea Scrolls community): Awaited two messiahs—a priestly Messiah (from Aaron) and a royal Messiah (from David).

The Zealots: Expected a military leader who would violently overthrow Roman occupation.

Common people: Longed for deliverance from oppression, hoping the Messiah would be a conquering king like David.

Messianic Criteria

Judaism developed specific criteria the Messiah must fulfill:

1. Rebuild the Temple: “In that day I will raise up the booth of David that is fallen” (Amos 9:11)
2. Gather the exiles: “He will raise a signal for the nations and will assemble the banished of Israel, and gather the dispersed of Judah from the four corners of the earth” (Isaiah 11:12)
3. Restore the Davidic kingdom: A literal, political reign from Jerusalem
4. Bring universal peace: “They shall beat their swords into plowshares” (Isaiah 2:4)
5. Spread knowledge of God: “For the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the LORD” (Isaiah 11:9)
6. Be a human descendant of David: Not divine, not supernatural

Jesus, Jews argue, fulfilled none of these. The Temple remains destroyed, Jews remain scattered, war continues, most don’t know God, and Christians claim Jesus is divine—disqualifying him.

Rabbinic Development

After the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE) and the failed Bar Kokhba revolt (135 CE), messianic expectation became more cautious:

Maimonides’ Principles: Belief in the Messiah’s coming is one of the Thirteen Principles of Jewish faith.

“I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah, and though he may tarry, I will wait daily for his coming.”

Characteristics:

• Human, not divine
• Descendant of David through Solomon
• Will be a righteous king and Torah scholar
• Will restore the Temple and sacrifices
• Will gather all Jews to Israel
• Will bring world peace

The Messiah’s Coming: When Israel is worthy, he will come quickly. When Israel is unworthy, he will come in “his time” (at the predetermined end).

Some traditions speak of Mashiach ben Yosef (Messiah son of Joseph), a precursor who will die in battle, and Mashiach ben David (Messiah son of David), who will achieve final redemption.

Modern Jewish Views

Orthodox: Maintain traditional belief in a personal Messiah who will literally fulfill the prophecies.

Reform: Often reinterpret the Messiah as a messianic age (not a person) when humanity achieves peace and justice.

Conservative: Between Orthodox and Reform—belief in messianic redemption but flexibility on literal vs. symbolic interpretation.

Secular/Zionist: Some see the State of Israel’s establishment (1948) as “the beginning of the flowering of our redemption” (atchalta d’geulah)—not the Messiah himself but a step toward messianic fulfillment.

Jesus as the Messiah (Christianity)

Jesus’ Messianic Claims

Explicit Confession: “The woman said to him, ‘I know that Messiah is coming (he who is called Christ). When he comes, he will tell us all things.’ Jesus said to her, ‘I who speak to you am he’” (John 4:25-26).

Peter’s Confession: “He said to them, ‘But who do you say that I am?’ Simon Peter replied, ‘You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.’ And Jesus answered him, ‘Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jonah! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven’” (Matthew 16:15-17).

Jesus affirms Peter’s confession as divinely revealed truth.

The Triumphal Entry: Jesus deliberately fulfills Zechariah 9:9: “Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem! Behold, your king is coming to you; righteous and having salvation is he, humble and mounted on a donkey.”

Before Pilate: “Pilate asked him, ‘Are you the King of the Jews?’ And he answered him, ‘You have said so’” (Mark 15:2).

Fulfillment of Prophecy

Christians identify hundreds of fulfilled prophecies:

Birth:

• Born in Bethlehem (Micah 5:2 → Matthew 2:1)
• Virgin birth (Isaiah 7:14 → Matthew 1:23)
• Called out of Egypt (Hosea 11:1 → Matthew 2:15)

Ministry:

• Preceded by messenger (Malachi 3:1 → John the Baptist)
• Ministry in Galilee (Isaiah 9:1-2 → Matthew 4:12-16)
• Speaking in parables (Psalm 78:2 → Matthew 13:34-35)
• Healing the sick (Isaiah 53:4 → Matthew 8:17)

Death:

• Betrayed for thirty pieces of silver (Zechariah 11:12 → Matthew 26:15)
• Silent before accusers (Isaiah 53:7 → Matthew 27:12-14)
• Crucified (Psalm 22:16 “they pierced my hands and feet” → John 19:18)
• Lots cast for clothing (Psalm 22:18 → John 19:24)
• No bones broken (Psalm 34:20 → John 19:33)
• Buried in rich man’s tomb (Isaiah 53:9 → Matthew 27:57-60)

Resurrection:

• “You will not abandon my soul to Sheol, or let your holy one see corruption” (Psalm 16:10 → Acts 2:27-31)

The Two Comings

To explain why Jesus didn’t fulfill all prophecies, Christianity developed the two-comings framework:

First Coming (past):

• Born as human
• Suffered and died as Suffering Servant (Isaiah 53)
• Rose from the dead
• Accomplished spiritual salvation (atonement for sin)

Second Coming (future):

• Will return in glory
• Will defeat enemies
• Will establish visible kingdom
• Will judge all nations
• Will fulfill remaining prophecies (peace, Temple, etc.)

Isaiah’s prophecies blend both comings, Christians argue, which is why Jews expecting only a conquering king missed the Suffering Servant.

Jesus’ Divine Messiahship

Unlike Jewish expectation of a human Messiah, Christianity insists the Messiah is divine:

Son of God: Not merely adopted or figurative sonship, but eternal, metaphysical sonship—the Second Person of the Trinity.

Pre-existent: “Before Abraham was, I am” (John 8:58)—using the divine name from Exodus 3:14.

Worshiped: “Thomas answered him, ‘My Lord and my God!’” (John 20:28). Jesus accepts worship, which would be blasphemous if He weren’t divine.

Messianic Secret: During His earthly ministry, Jesus often told people not to publicize that He was the Messiah (Mark 8:30). Why? Because popular messianic expectations were political/military. Jesus came first to die, not to reign (yet).

Apostolic Proclamation

The early church’s central message was “Jesus is the Messiah”:

“Let all the house of Israel therefore know for certain that God has made him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom you crucified” (Acts 2:36).

“Paul went in, as was his custom, and on three Sabbath days he reasoned with them from the Scriptures, explaining and proving that it was necessary for the Christ to suffer and to rise from the dead, and saying, ‘This Jesus, whom I proclaim to you, is the Christ’” (Acts 17:2-3).

The Messiah in Islam

Jesus as Al-Masih

The Quran gives Jesus the unique title Al-Masih (the Messiah):

“When the angels said, ‘O Mary, indeed Allah gives you good tidings of a word from Him, whose name will be the Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary—distinguished in this world and the Hereafter and among those brought near [to Allah]’” (Quran 3:45).

Why Jesus is called Messiah is not explained in the Quran, and Islamic scholars debate its meaning. Suggestions include:

• One who travels extensively (Arabic saha, to travel)
• One who is blessed (Arabic masaha, to bless)
• One anointed by Allah with honor

Jesus’ Role in Islam

A Great Prophet: Jesus is one of the greatest prophets (rasul), performing miracles by Allah’s permission:

• Born of virgin Mary
• Spoke as infant in cradle
• Healed the blind and leprous
• Raised the dead
• Created a bird from clay and breathed life into it

Not Divine: “They have certainly disbelieved who say, ‘Allah is the Messiah, the son of Mary’” (Quran 5:17).

Jesus is not God’s son, not divine, not part of a Trinity.

Not Crucified: “And [for] their saying, ‘Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah.’ And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but [another] was made to resemble him to them… Rather, Allah raised him to Himself” (Quran 4:157-158).

Someone else (perhaps Judas or Simon of Cyrene) was crucified in Jesus’ place. Jesus was raised to heaven alive.

The Return of Jesus

Islamic eschatology includes Jesus’ second coming:

Before the Day of Judgment: Jesus will return to earth before the final resurrection.

His Mission:

• Defeat Ad-Dajjal (the Antichrist/false messiah)
• Kill the beast
• Break the cross (symbolically ending Christianity)
• Kill all pigs
• Abolish the jizya (tax on non-Muslims—all will convert to Islam)
• Marry, have children, live for years, then die
• Be buried in Medina next to Muhammad

Not the Judge: Jesus does not judge humanity; that role belongs to Allah alone. Jesus returns as prophet and deputy, not as divine Messiah.

Mahdi

Some Islamic traditions speak of the Mahdi (the guided one), a different figure who will appear before Jesus’ return to restore justice. The Mahdi is not mentioned in the Quran but appears in hadith. He is not identified with Jesus but works alongside him.

Jewish-Christian Debate

Why Jews Reject Jesus as Messiah

Unfulfilled Prophecies:

• Temple not rebuilt (destroyed 70 CE, still not standing)
• Jews not gathered to Israel (diaspora continued for 1,900 years)
• Universal peace not achieved (wars continue)
• Knowledge of God not universal (most humans are not monotheists)

Christians’ “two comings” is, Jews argue, a post-hoc rationalization for failed predictions.

Lineage Questions:

• Matthew traces Jesus’ lineage through Joseph (Matthew 1), but Christians claim virgin birth—so Jesus isn’t Joseph’s biological son
• If Jesus isn’t Joseph’s biological son, how can he be “son of David” through Joseph’s line?
• Luke’s genealogy differs from Matthew’s—contradictory?

Suffering and Death:

• The Messiah will be victorious, not executed as a criminal
• Deuteronomy 21:23: “Anyone hanged on a tree is cursed by God”—how can a cursed man be the Messiah?

Divinity Claims:

• God is not a man (Numbers 23:19)
• Worshiping a human is idolatry
• Trinity violates pure monotheism

Christian Responses

Unfulfilled Prophecies: The first coming accomplished spiritual salvation; the second will accomplish physical/political restoration. Old Testament blends both comings.

Lineage:

• Jesus is Joseph’s legal (adopted) son, qualifying through Joseph’s line
• Jesus is Mary’s biological son; Mary is also Davidic descent (some argue)
• Virgin birth fulfills Isaiah 7:14

Suffering:

• Isaiah 53 predicts a suffering Messiah
• Psalm 22 describes crucifixion details
• The Messiah must die to atone for sin before reigning

Divinity:

• Isaiah 9:6 calls the Messiah “Mighty God”
• The Messiah is both human (son of David) and divine (Son of God)
• Not idolatry to worship the one true God incarnate

False Messiahs

History is littered with messianic claimants:

Bar Kokhba (132-135 CE): Rabbi Akiva proclaimed him Messiah. Led revolt against Rome. Defeated; hundreds of thousands died.

Sabbatai Zevi (1626-1676): Declared himself Messiah, gained massive following. Converted to Islam under threat of death, devastating his followers.

Jacob Frank (1726-1791): Claimed to be reincarnation of Sabbatai Zevi. Led antinomian movement.

Jesus warned: “For false christs and false prophets will arise and perform great signs and wonders, so as to lead astray, if possible, even the elect” (Matthew 24:24).

Modern Messianic Movements

Messianic Judaism: Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah but maintain Jewish identity and practice. Controversial—mainstream Judaism considers them Christians, not Jews.

Chabad Messianism: Some followers of Rebbe Menachem Mendel Schneerson (d. 1994) believe he is the Messiah and will return from the dead. Controversial within Orthodox Judaism.

Christian Zionism: Some Christians support Israel politically because they believe Jewish return to the land is prerequisite for Christ’s second coming.

Significance

“The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight” (Phillips Brooks, “O Little Town of Bethlehem”).

The Messiah is not abstract doctrine but the focal point of hope, the answer to humanity’s longing for deliverance, the fulfillment of God’s promises. For thousands of years, Jews have prayed, “I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; though he tarry, I will wait for him every day.” For two millennia, Christians have proclaimed, “Jesus Christ is Lord,” confessing that the Messiah has come, died, risen, and will return. For fourteen centuries, Muslims have honored Jesus as Al-Masih, awaiting his return to defeat evil and establish justice.

The messianic question divides more sharply than any other: Has the Messiah come? If so, who is he? What has he accomplished? What remains to be done? The answers define Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

For Judaism, the Messiah is yet to come. The wait continues through persecution, exile, Holocaust, and return. Every Passover: “Next year in Jerusalem!” Every prayer: “May he establish his kingdom in your lifetime and in your days.” The Messiah will come when the world is ready, when Israel is worthy, when God’s time arrives.

For Christianity, the Messiah has come. “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life” (John 3:16). Jesus is the Christ, the fulfillment of all prophecy, the completion of all hopes. His first coming saved souls; His second coming will consummate all things. Every Eucharist: “Christ has died, Christ is risen, Christ will come again.”

For Islam, the Messiah is honored but not worshiped. Jesus will return, but as prophet, not as God. His mission is to defeat falsehood and establish truth, pointing all to Allah, not to himself.

The messianic hope refuses to die. It sustains the persecuted, inspires the faithful, and promises that history is not meaningless, that God has a plan, that deliverance is coming, that the kingdom will be established, that justice will prevail, that peace will reign, that every tear will be wiped away, that the long night of suffering will give way to the eternal day of redemption.

The question remains: “Who do you say that I am?” How one answers determines everything.