Saints: The Holy Ones of God

Who are the saints? The answer depends profoundly on which Christian tradition you ask—and whether you ask Christians at all, for Judaism and Islam have their own understandings of holy persons who live in intimate friendship with God. For Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, saints are exemplary Christians, officially recognized through canonization, who now intercede in heaven for the living. For Protestants, every believer is a saint by virtue of Christ’s righteousness, and special veneration of deceased heroes of faith borders on idolatry. For Jews, the tzaddikim (righteous ones) inspire and teach but are not prayed to. For Muslims, the awliya (friends of God) demonstrate spiritual excellence but remain creatures, never mediators.

Yet despite these profound differences, all three Abrahamic traditions recognize that some individuals live in such close relationship with God that their lives become transparent to the divine, their prayers carry special weight, and their examples illuminate the path for others. The debates about saints—who they are, how they function, whether they can be invoked—have shaped theology, sparked reformations, and defined the boundaries between traditions. In wrestling with these questions, believers confront deeper issues: the nature of holiness, the communion between heaven and earth, the role of exemplars, and the relationship between divine grace and human response.

Biblical Foundations: The Language of Holiness

Old Testament: A Holy People

The concept of “saints” begins with Israel’s calling to be “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exodus 19:6). The Hebrew word qadosh (holy, set apart) and its related forms appear throughout the Old Testament, describing both God’s transcendent holiness and His people’s consecrated status.

God commands: “You shall be holy, for I the LORD your God am holy” (Leviticus 19:2). Holiness is not primarily moral perfection but set-apartness for God’s purposes. Israel is holy because God has chosen them, separated them from other nations, and called them into covenant relationship.

The term “holy ones” (qedoshim/qadoshim) appears in various contexts:

• Israel as God’s holy people (Deuteronomy 33:3: “All his holy ones were in your hand”)
• Angels or heavenly beings (Psalm 89:5,7; Daniel 8:13)
• The faithful remnant within Israel (Psalm 16:3: “As for the saints in the land, they are the excellent ones”)
• Eschatological people of God (Daniel 7:18: “the saints of the Most High shall receive the kingdom”)

The Psalms celebrate the special relationship between God and His “saints” (hasidim—those who show covenant faithfulness): “The LORD preserves the faithful [hasidim]; but the proud he repays in full” (Psalm 31:23). These are not morally perfect individuals but those who maintain covenant loyalty despite struggles and failures.

New Testament: All Believers as Saints

The New Testament radically democratizes “saint” language. Paul consistently addresses entire churches as “saints” (hagioi—holy ones):

• “To all those in Rome who are loved by God and called to be saints [hagioi]” (Romans 1:7)
• “To the church of God that is in Corinth, to those sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints” (1 Corinthians 1:2)
• “To the saints who are in Ephesus” (Ephesians 1:1)
• “To all the saints in Christ Jesus who are at Philippi” (Philippians 1:1)

This is remarkable: Paul calls believers “saints” not because of their moral achievement but because of their status in Christ. The Corinthian church, plagued by divisions, sexual immorality, and doctrinal confusion, is nonetheless addressed as “saints.” Sainthood is their identity, not their accomplishment.

The basis is clear: believers are “sanctified in Christ Jesus” (1 Corinthians 1:2). Christ’s holiness becomes theirs through union with Him. They are “set apart” for God’s purposes, consecrated by the Spirit, members of God’s holy people. Sainthood is corporate (the whole community) and comprehensive (all believers), not exceptional or elite.

Paul also uses “saints” to designate Christians in general: “the contribution for the saints” (1 Corinthians 16:1), “the ministry to the saints” (2 Corinthians 8:4), “the equipping of the saints” (Ephesians 4:12). Every Christian is a saint; every saint remains simultaneously sinner and righteous (simul iustus et peccator, as Luther would later formulate).

Hebrews and Revelation: The Cloud of Witnesses

The Letter to the Hebrews introduces imagery that would profoundly influence later Christian reflection on saints. After cataloging the heroes of faith (Abel, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and others) in chapter 11, the author writes:

“Therefore, since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us also lay aside every weight, and sin which clings so closely, and let us run with perseverance the race that is set before us, looking to Jesus, the founder and perfecter of our faith” (Hebrews 12:1-2).

Are these witnesses merely examples from the past, or are they somehow present, watching, encouraging? The text doesn’t explicitly say, but the imagery suggests an ongoing relationship between the faithful on earth and those who have gone before.

Revelation portrays heavenly worship in which the prayers of the saints are offered before God: “And another angel came and stood at the altar with a golden censer, and he was given much incense to offer with the prayers of all the saints on the golden altar before the throne” (Revelation 8:3). Here “saints” clearly includes believers on earth, but the imagery of heavenly presentation of prayers would later support beliefs about saints’ intercession.

Most provocatively, Revelation depicts the souls of martyrs under the altar crying out: “O Sovereign Lord, holy and true, how long before you will judge and avenge our blood on those who dwell on the earth?” (Revelation 6:10). The dead are conscious, aware, and actively engaged with God’s purposes—imagery that fuels Catholic and Orthodox theology of saints, while Protestants emphasize the vision’s symbolic rather than literal nature.

Historical Development: From All Believers to Special Veneration

Early Christianity: Martyrs and Confessors

The earliest Christian centuries saw the gradual emergence of special honor for martyrs—those who had died for the faith. Their deaths were seen as ultimate witness (martyria) to Christ, imitating His self-giving love. Annual commemorations at martyrs’ tombs became standard practice, with the Eucharist celebrated on their death-day (dies natalis—birthday into eternal life).

The martyrdom accounts (Acts of the Martyrs) often described visions, miraculous courage, or signs accompanying their deaths, reinforcing belief that they enjoyed special intimacy with Christ. Pilgrims visited their tombs, seeking healing or intercession. Relics (bones or possessions) were treasured.

After persecution ended with Constantine’s conversion (early 4th century), the category expanded to include “confessors”—those who had suffered for the faith but not died—and eventually ascetics, bishops, and virgins who had lived exemplary Christian lives. The criteria shifted from martyrdom to heroic sanctity more broadly.

Patristic Period: Theological Justification

Church Fathers developed theological rationales for honoring saints:

Communion of Saints: Augustine articulated the church as one body spanning heaven and earth, living and dead, united in Christ. The saints in heaven remain members of Christ’s body, concerned for their siblings on earth.

Intercession: Based on James 5:16 (“the prayer of a righteous person has great power”), it was reasoned that the prayers of the perfectly righteous in heaven must be especially effective. If Christians on earth should pray for one another, why not ask those in heaven—who see God face-to-face—to pray for us?

Veneration vs. Worship: A crucial distinction emerged between latria (worship/adoration, due to God alone) and dulia (honor/veneration, appropriate for saints). To honor saints was not to worship them but to glorify God’s grace working in them. Mary received hyperdulia (special veneration), but still distinct from worship.

Examples for Imitation: Saints provided concrete models of Christian discipleship. Their lives demonstrated that holiness was possible, that grace could transform ordinary people into extraordinary witnesses.

Medieval Catholicism: Canonization and Cult

By the medieval period, veneration of saints was central to Catholic piety. Virtually every aspect of life had patron saints; churches were dedicated to saints; relics were prized possessions; pilgrimage to saints’ shrines was major religious practice.

The formal canonization process developed gradually. Initially, local bishops recognized saints based on popular acclaim and reputation for miracles. By the 10th century, papal canonization became standard. The process involved investigating the candidate’s life, virtues, and miracles, with rigorous skepticism intended to prevent fraud.

Medieval theology, particularly Thomas Aquinas, systematized saint theology:

• Saints in heaven see God beatifically (beatific vision)
• They are perfected in charity and therefore desire the good of those on earth
• They can intercede because Christ’s mediation includes, rather than excludes, creatures’ participation
• Honoring saints honors God, who made them holy

Abuses certainly occurred: relic fraud, commercialization, superstition, prayers to saints eclipsing prayer to God. These excesses would fuel Protestant critique.

Catholic and Orthodox Understanding

Roman Catholic Theology

Contemporary Catholic teaching, refined at the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), maintains traditional doctrines while addressing Protestant concerns:

Canonization: The Church officially recognizes certain deceased faithful as saints through a rigorous process:

1. Servant of God: Investigation begins, often years or decades after death
2. Venerable: Pope declares the candidate lived heroic virtue
3. Blessed: Beatification occurs after verification of one miracle (except martyrs)
4. Saint: Canonization after verification of a second miracle
5. The process involves extensive historical research, testimony from witnesses, and medical verification of miracles

This process does not “make” someone a saint but recognizes what God has already done. Many saints in heaven are unknown to the Church on earth.

Intercession: Catholics believe saints in heaven intercede for the living. This doesn’t compromise Christ’s unique mediation (1 Timothy 2:5) but participates in it, just as Christians on earth intercede for one another. Christ’s mediation is inclusive, incorporating the prayers of His body, the Church.

Veneration: Honoring saints (dulia) remains distinct from worshiping God (latria). Practices like praying “to” saints actually mean “asking saints to pray for us to God,” not addressing prayers to saints as divine beings. The distinction is sometimes lost in popular piety, but theologically crucial.

Relics and Images: Physical remains and artistic depictions serve as sacramental connections to the saints, means of grace, not magical objects. Kissing an icon or venerating a relic expresses love for the person and God’s work in them.

Communion of Saints: The Church exists in three states—militant (on earth), suffering (in purgatory), penitent (being purified)—all united in Christ’s mystical body. Death does not sever membership in Christ’s body.

Eastern Orthodox Theology

Orthodox Christianity shares Catholic veneration of saints but with distinctive emphases:

Glorification: Instead of “canonization,” Orthodoxy speaks of “glorification”—recognizing that God has glorified His servants. No centralized process exists; saints are recognized through consensus of bishops and people, often confirmed by miracles and widespread veneration.

Theosis: Saints manifest the goal of Christian life—theosis (deification), becoming by grace what God is by nature. They are icons (images) of what humanity was created to be, showing God’s glory shining through transformed human nature.

Icons: Far more central in Orthodox spirituality than in Western Christianity, icons are “windows to heaven,” making present the reality they depict. Venerating a saint’s icon is encountering the saint, who is alive in Christ. The theology of icons was definitively defended at the Seventh Ecumenical Council (787 CE).

Liturgical Presence: Saints are invoked throughout Orthodox liturgy, particularly in the Divine Liturgy, where the celebrant calls on Mary, apostles, martyrs, and all saints to join in worship. Heaven and earth unite in the Eucharistic celebration.

Popular Devotion: Orthodox piety emphasizes personal relationships with particular saints—patron saints, name-day celebrations, pilgrimages to saints’ tombs or monasteries, prayers for their intercession in daily life.

Protestant Reformation and Response

Luther, Calvin, and Rejection of Veneration

The Protestant Reformers made rejection of saint veneration a defining position:

Martin Luther objected that:

• Praying to saints compromised Christ’s unique mediation
• No biblical command or example supports the practice
• It fostered superstition and distracted from simple faith in Christ
• Popular piety had descended into works-righteousness (earning favor through devotions)

He emphasized that all Christians are saints by virtue of faith in Christ, not heroic virtue. The “communion of saints” in the Creed refers to the unity of all believers, not intercession of the dead.

John Calvin was even more emphatic:

• Invoking saints is idolatry, giving creatures honor due to God alone
• Scripture nowhere teaches that the dead know our circumstances or can hear our prayers
• The practice rests on tradition, not biblical authority
• It obscures Christ’s sufficiency as mediator

Zwingli and the Reformed tradition removed images from churches entirely, seeing them as violations of the second commandment. Prayers to saints, veneration of relics, and pilgrimage to shrines were abolished in Protestant territories.

Protestant Alternative: Remembrance and Example

Protestantism retained appreciation for faithful Christians throughout history:

• Remembrance: Reformers honored past faithful as examples, not intercessors
• Sola Scriptura: The biblical heroes of faith remain authoritative examples; post-biblical saints are edifying but not normative
• All Believers Saints: Every Christian is simultaneously sinner and saint (simul iustus et peccator), holy in Christ while still struggling with sin
• Biographies: Protestant tradition produced extensive hagiography—Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, missionary biographies, Puritan spiritual autobiographies—celebrating faithful witnesses without invoking them in prayer

The Westminster Confession (1646) typifies Reformed position: “Religious worship is to be given to God, the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; and to him alone… Prayer, with thanksgiving, being one special part of religious worship, is by God required of all men… but to none else” (XXI.2).

Anglican Via Media

The Church of England attempted a middle path:

• Rejecting invocation of saints and veneration of relics as unbiblical and superstitious
• Retaining calendars of saints as examples and inspirations
• Maintaining dedications of churches to saints (as historical practice, not theological statement)
• Allowing commemoration of saints in liturgy without prayer to them

The Thirty-Nine Articles (1571) state: “The Romish Doctrine concerning… Invocation of Saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God” (Article XXII).

Jewish Perspectives: Tzaddikim and Righteous Exemplars

Biblical Tzaddikim

Judaism has no formal doctrine of sainthood, yet recognizes tzaddikim (righteous ones) as individuals who live in exceptional covenant faithfulness. Biblical figures like Abraham, Moses, David, Elijah, and Daniel are celebrated not as intercessors but as examples and teachers.

The Talmud debates how many perfectly righteous people exist in each generation, sometimes suggesting 36 (the Lamed Vav Tzaddikim) whose righteousness sustains the world, though their identity is hidden.

Hasidic Tradition: The Tzaddik as Spiritual Leader

Hasidic Judaism (emerging in 18th-century Eastern Europe) developed a distinctive theology around the tzaddik—the rebbe or spiritual master whose intimacy with God enables him to guide others, perform miracles, and intercede.

The tzaddik serves as intermediary between heaven and earth, not replacing God but making the divine accessible. Hasidim visit their rebbe’s grave (ohel) to pray, asking the deceased tzaddik to intercede with God. This practice troubles some non-Hasidic Jews as resembling Catholic saint veneration.

Key differences from Christian sainthood:

• Tzaddikim are not officially canonized or universally recognized
• They remain fully human, never divinized or worshiped
• Their role emphasizes teaching and spiritual guidance, not primarily miracle-working
• The focus is on living tzaddikim as much as deceased ones

Graves of the Righteous

Pilgrimage to graves of renowned rabbis and tzaddikim is common, particularly in Hasidic communities but also more broadly. Famous sites include:

• Rachel’s Tomb near Bethlehem
• Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai’s tomb in Meron
• Graves of various Hasidic rebbes in Eastern Europe and New York
• The Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron

Prayers at these sites ask God to hear petitions in the merit (zekhut) of the righteous buried there, not prayers “to” the deceased themselves. The distinction is theologically important but practically subtle.

Islamic Perspectives: Awliya Allah

Friends of God

Islam recognizes awliya Allah (friends of God), those who live in close intimacy with God through faith, worship, and righteous action. The Quran states:

“Unquestionably, [for] the allies [awliya] of Allah there will be no fear concerning them, nor will they grieve. Those who believed and were fearing Allah—For them are good tidings in the worldly life and in the Hereafter” (Quran 10:62-64).

These are not mediators or intercessors (Islam strictly maintains tawhid—God’s absolute oneness and sole sovereignty) but exemplars whose lives demonstrate complete submission (islam) to God.

Sufi Saints

Sufism (Islamic mysticism) developed rich traditions of saint veneration, particularly centered on founders of Sufi orders (tariqas):

Walayah (sainthood/friendship with God) is achieved through spiritual discipline, dhikr (remembrance of God), and purification of heart. The wali (saint) manifests karamat (miraculous gifts/graces) as signs of divine favor.

Ziyarah (visitation) to saints’ tombs is widespread practice in Sufi-influenced regions. Pilgrims seek blessing (barakah), pray for intercession (tawassul), and commemorate the saint’s life. Annual festivals (urs) celebrate major Sufi saints.

Hierarchy: Sufi cosmology sometimes envisions a hierarchy of saints, with the qutb (pole or axis) as the supreme saint of each age, through whom God governs the world spiritually.

Wahhabi Critique

Puritanical reform movements, particularly Wahhabism (18th century to present), vehemently reject saint veneration as shirk (polytheism/idolatry):

• Praying at tombs treats creatures like God
• Asking dead saints for intercession violates tawhid
• Building elaborate shrines wastes resources and encourages superstition
• Only God can be invoked; only God grants requests

This debate continues in contemporary Islam, with Sufis defending traditional practices as honoring God’s friends, and Salafis condemning them as innovations (bid’ah) contrary to pure monotheism.

Comparative Themes and Ecumenical Dialogue

Mediation and Intercession

All three traditions affirm that righteous prayers are efficacious: “The prayer of the righteous is powerful and effective” (James 5:16). They differ on whether this principle extends beyond death:

• Catholic/Orthodox: Yes, the righteous in heaven intercede for the living, participating in Christ’s ongoing mediation
• Protestant: No biblical warrant; Christ alone mediates; the living should pray to God directly
• Judaism: Prayer at graves asks God to answer for the merit of the righteous, not prayer “to” them
• Sufi Islam: Saints’ spiritual station makes their intercession (tawassul) effective, though God alone grants requests
• Salafi Islam: Asking anyone but God, living or dead, is forbidden shirk

Holiness: Gift and Achievement

How do people become holy?

• Protestant: Sainthood is Christ’s righteousness imputed to believers by faith alone—pure gift
• Catholic: Sanctification involves cooperation with grace—gift empowering response
• Orthodox: Theosis is becoming by grace what God is by nature—synergy of divine and human will
• Judaism: Torah observance and covenant faithfulness, empowered by divine grace
• Islam: Submission to God’s will, righteous action, spiritual discipline

All affirm both divine initiative and human response, differing on emphasis and mechanics.

Unity Beyond Death

Do living and dead remain in communion?

• Catholic/Orthodox: Yes, the Church spans heaven and earth, united in Christ’s mystical body
• Protestant: The dead are “asleep” or “absent from the body, present with the Lord,” awaiting resurrection; no active interaction with the living
• Judaism: Varied views; afterlife is less central than this-world faithfulness; some believe in soul’s persistence, others emphasize bodily resurrection
• Islam: Barzakh (barrier) separates living and dead until resurrection; souls of martyrs and righteous may enjoy special awareness

The Politics of Sainthood

Who gets recognized as saint often reflects power dynamics:

• Medieval canonizations favored royalty, clergy, founders of religious orders
• Modern Catholic canonizations include more lay people, women, non-Europeans
• National patron saints served political identities (Joan of Arc for France, Patrick for Ireland)
• Canonization can be tool of reform (Francis to promote poverty, Teresa of Calcutta to validate service to poor)
• Exclusions are telling: no divorced people, few who challenged church authority

Modern Significance and Challenges

Ecumenical Progress

Recent decades have seen surprising convergence:

• Protestants increasingly appreciate saints as examples, publishing hagiographies and celebrating heroes of faith
• Catholics emphasize Christ’s unique mediation more clearly, addressing Protestant concerns
• Joint commemorations of martyrs (Anglican-Catholic martyrs of Reformation, ecumenical martyrs of 20th-century totalitarianism)
• Recognition that all Christians are “saints” in biblical sense, whatever their views on veneration

Women Saints

Historically, women saints were primarily virgins or martyrs, celibate or widowed. Modern canonizations include more married women, mothers, and active ministers, reflecting changing understandings of women’s holiness.

Yet questions persist: Does sainthood still reflect patriarchal assumptions? Are women saints still often presented primarily in relation to men (as mothers, wives, supporters)? How do criteria for female sanctity differ from male?

Globalization of Sainthood

Catholic canonizations increasingly recognize saints from Africa, Asia, Latin America, not only Europe. This reflects and shapes the church’s demographic shift to the Global South. Yet Western models of sanctity still dominate; inculturation of sainthood remains incomplete.

Ordinary Holiness

Contemporary spirituality emphasizes the “universal call to holiness” (Vatican II)—every Christian, in any vocation, is called to sanctity. This democratizes holiness while also raising questions about whether special recognition of extraordinary saints is still needed or helpful.

The Enduring Question: What Makes a Life Holy?

Debates about saints ultimately ask: What does human holiness look like? How is God’s grace manifest in human lives? Can creatures participate in divine work without competing with divine sovereignty? May we ask others to pray for us, and does death end that request’s appropriateness?

For Catholics and Orthodox, saints demonstrate grace transforming nature, making the impossible possible, showing that holiness is achievable even for struggling sinners. Their intercession knits heaven and earth into one communion of love.

For Protestants, all believers are saints by virtue of Christ’s righteousness, simultaneous sinners and righteous, perfect in God’s sight though imperfect in themselves. Looking to human examples helps, but only Christ saves and mediates.

For Jews, tzaddikim show what covenant faithfulness produces: lives of Torah observance, ethical integrity, and spiritual depth. They teach but do not save; only God redeems.

For Muslims, awliya demonstrate complete surrender to God’s will. Their lives reflect divine attributes—mercy, generosity, wisdom—but they remain servants, not partners in God’s work.

Across these differences, all three Abrahamic traditions affirm that some lives shine with divine light, that holiness is real and recognizable, that the faithful who have gone before us matter for the faithful walking today, and that the goal of human existence is communion with the Holy One, however that relationship is understood and practiced.

The saints—whether venerated or merely remembered, invoked or only imitated, canonized or simply celebrated—testify that the chasm between divine and human is bridged, that God’s grace transforms broken humanity, and that the call to holiness, however daunting, is not impossible.

In the end, perhaps the deepest truth about saints is simply this: they are what all of us are called to become—people in whom God is glorified, in whom grace is visible, and through whom others encounter the Holy. Whether we ask their prayers or only follow their examples, the saints remind us that ordinary people can become extraordinary witnesses to the God who makes all things new.