Ibadi Islam

The third major branch of Islam, distinct from both Sunni and Shia traditions. Ibadis comprise less than 1% of Muslims worldwide (approximately 2-3 million), predominantly in Oman (where they are the majority), with smaller communities in North and East Africa. Ibadism is known for its moderate theology and emphasis on piety and justice.

Core Beliefs

Neither Sunni nor Shia

Ibadis emerged from the Kharijite movement but developed in a more moderate direction. They reject both the Sunni claim that leadership required Quraysh tribal lineage and the Shia belief in hereditary Imamate through Ali’s descendants.

Imamate Based on Piety

Ibadis believe the Muslim community should be led by the most pious and capable person, regardless of lineage. The Imam can be deposed if he becomes unjust. In the absence of a just Imam, the community can exist in a state of concealment (kitmān).

Moderate Position on Sin

Unlike extreme Kharijites who declared sinful Muslims to be unbelievers, Ibadis hold a middle position: grave sinners are “ungrateful” (kāfir ni’mah) but not apostates (kāfir shirk). This allows for continued fellowship with imperfect Muslims.

Five Pillars

Like all Muslims, Ibadis practice the Five Pillars: declaration of faith, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage.

Historical Development

• 7th century (657 CE) - Kharijite movement emerges after arbitration between Ali and Muawiyah
• 8th century - Abdullah ibn Ibad gives moderate Kharijism its name (Ibadism)
• 9th-11th centuries - Ibadi states established in Oman, North Africa (Tahert), and Zanzibar
• 18th century - Ya’rubid and Al-Bu Sa’id dynasties in Oman
• Modern era - Oman under Sultan Qaboos modernizes while maintaining Ibadi identity

Practices

Prayer and Worship

Ibadi practice closely resembles Sunni worship in most respects. They perform the five daily prayers, observe Ramadan fasting, and undertake pilgrimage to Mecca.

Legal School

Ibadis have their own school of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), distinct from the four Sunni schools and Shia law. Their legal methodology emphasizes reason and consensus.

Moderation and Tolerance

Historically, Ibadis have been known for religious tolerance and peaceful coexistence with other Muslim traditions and non-Muslims. Ibadi Oman has maintained relative stability and avoided sectarian conflict.

Scholarly Tradition

Ibadis preserve a rich scholarly heritage through their own hadith collections, legal texts, and theological works, maintained in libraries and manuscript collections, especially in Oman.

Geographic Distribution

• Oman - Majority (about 75% of Omanis are Ibadi); state religion
• Zanzibar and East Africa - Historical Ibadi influence through Omani trade and empire
• North Africa - Small communities in Libya (Jabal Nafusa), Algeria (M’zab valley), Tunisia (Djerba island)

Church Structure

When conditions permit, Ibadis elect an Imam to lead the community. In modern Oman, the Sultan combines traditional authority with the historic role of Ibadi Imam, though in a modified form suited to the modern nation-state.

Theological Distinctives

• Concept of States - Ibadis developed a theory of four states: manifestation (ẓuhūr) when openly ruled, defense (difāʿ) when protecting territory, concealment (kitmān) when practicing in secret, and selling (shirā’) when engaging in armed struggle
• Rejection of Intercession - Ibadis reject the intercession of prophets and saints on Judgment Day, contrary to Sunni and Shia belief
• Treatment of Opponents - Other Muslims are not considered infidels but rather “people of monotheism” who may be in error

Relation to Other Islamic Traditions

Ibadis trace their roots to the earliest Islamic debates about leadership and sin but diverged from extremist Kharijite positions. They maintain cordial relations with Sunnis and Shias, marrying across sectarian lines and cooperating in various contexts. Omani Ibadism, in particular, has fostered a tradition of religious tolerance. While maintaining distinct identity and jurisprudence, Ibadis are generally accepted as Muslims by other traditions. Their moderate approach and emphasis on piety over politics have enabled peaceful coexistence in multi-sectarian contexts.