Muhammad: The Prophet of Islam

Muhammad ibn Abdullah (c. 570–632 CE) stands as the final prophet in Islam, the messenger through whom God revealed the Quran and established the religion that would grow to encompass nearly two billion followers worldwide. For Muslims, Muhammad is not merely a historical figure but the perfect exemplar of human conduct, the beloved of God (Habib Allah), and the seal of prophetic revelation. His life—from his birth in Mecca through his prophetic calling, migration to Medina, and establishment of the first Islamic community—marks the defining moment in salvation history for the Islamic tradition.

Yet Muhammad’s significance extends beyond the Muslim ummah. His prophetic claims, his relationship to the earlier biblical prophets, and Islam’s emergence as a major world religion have profoundly shaped Christian and Jewish history and theology. The question of Muhammad’s prophethood has been a defining line of theological demarcation between Islam and the other Abrahamic faiths, even as modern interfaith dialogue seeks new frameworks for mutual understanding and respect.

Historical Life and Prophetic Calling

Early Life in Mecca

Muhammad was born around 570 CE in Mecca, a thriving commercial center in the Arabian Peninsula. Orphaned early—his father Abdullah died before his birth, his mother Amina when he was six—Muhammad was raised first by his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib and then by his uncle Abu Talib. Despite these early losses, Islamic tradition emphasizes the special protection and preparation God provided for His future messenger.

As a young man, Muhammad worked as a merchant and gained a reputation for honesty and trustworthiness, earning him the title “al-Amin” (the Trustworthy). At age twenty-five, he married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, a wealthy widow fifteen years his senior who would become his first and most loyal supporter. Their marriage was marked by deep love and mutual respect; during Khadijah’s lifetime, Muhammad took no other wives.

Even before his prophetic calling, Muhammad was known for his contemplative nature. He would retreat to a cave on Mount Hira outside Mecca for periods of solitary reflection and meditation, a practice that would culminate in the most transformative experience of his life.

The Night of Power

In 610 CE, during the month of Ramadan, Muhammad experienced his first revelation. While meditating in the Cave of Hira, he was visited by the angel Jibril (Gabriel), who commanded him: “Read!” (or “Recite!”). Though Muhammad protested that he could not read, the angel embraced him and repeated the command. The words that followed became the first verses of the Quran: “Read in the name of your Lord who created—created man from a clinging substance. Read, and your Lord is the most Generous—who taught by the pen—taught man that which he knew not” (Quran 96:1-5).

This encounter, commemorated in Islam as Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Power), marked Muhammad’s calling as God’s messenger. The Quran describes this momentous revelation: “The Night of Power is better than a thousand months. The angels and the Spirit descend therein by permission of their Lord for every matter” (Quran 97:3-4).

Terrified and uncertain, Muhammad sought comfort from Khadijah, who believed immediately in his prophetic mission and became the first convert to Islam. Her cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal, a Christian familiar with biblical tradition, confirmed that Muhammad’s experience was genuine divine revelation, comparing it to what Moses had received.

Early Preaching and Persecution

For three years, Muhammad preached quietly to family and close associates. His message was uncompromising: there is only one God (Allah), the idols worshiped by the Meccans are false, and all people will face judgment and resurrection. These teachings struck at the heart of Meccan religious, social, and economic life, which centered on the polytheistic shrine of the Kaaba and the pilgrimage trade it generated.

When Muhammad began preaching publicly around 613 CE, opposition intensified. The Meccan elite viewed his monotheistic message as a threat to their power and prosperity. Muhammad and his followers faced ridicule, boycotts, and physical persecution. Despite this opposition, the early Muslim community grew slowly but steadily, including both wealthy converts like Abu Bakr and enslaved persons like Bilal ibn Rabah.

The Year of Sorrow (619 CE) brought devastating losses: both Khadijah and Abu Talib died, depriving Muhammad of his most intimate supporter and his clan protector. Without Abu Talib’s protection, Muhammad’s position in Mecca became increasingly precarious. Yet it was also during this period that Muhammad experienced the miraculous Night Journey (Isra and Mi’raj), when he was transported from Mecca to Jerusalem and then ascended through the heavens, meeting previous prophets and receiving the command for Muslims to pray five times daily.

The Hijra and Medinan Period

Migration and State-Building

In 622 CE, facing escalating persecution and threats to his life, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Yathrib, a city 280 miles north of Mecca. This migration—the Hijra—was so significant that it marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Yathrib would be renamed Madinat al-Nabi (the City of the Prophet), or simply Medina.

In Medina, Muhammad’s role transformed from persecuted preacher to political and military leader. He established the Constitution of Medina, a remarkable document that created a pluralistic civic order including Muslims, Jews, and pagan Arabs. This constitution established Muhammad as the arbiter of disputes and laid foundations for the first Islamic polity.

The Medinan period saw the revelation of Quranic verses addressing community organization, legal matters, family law, warfare, and relations with non-Muslims. The five pillars of Islam took their definitive form: the testimony of faith (shahada), prayer (salat), almsgiving (zakat), fasting during Ramadan (sawm), and pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).

Conflict and Consolidation

The years in Medina were marked by military conflict with Mecca. The Muslims won a surprising victory at Badr (624 CE), suffered defeat at Uhud (625 CE), and survived a siege of Medina at the Battle of the Trench (627 CE). These conflicts are remembered not merely as military encounters but as defining moments when the nascent Muslim community’s faith was tested and proven.

Muhammad’s treatment of enemies and allies during this period established precedents for Islamic ethics of war and peace. After the Battle of Badr, he insisted that prisoners be treated humanely. Following the conquest of Mecca in 630 CE—achieved with minimal bloodshed—he granted a general amnesty, even to those who had most fiercely opposed him. His entry into the Kaaba, where he destroyed the idols while proclaiming “Truth has come and falsehood has departed” (Quran 17:81), symbolized the triumph of monotheism.

The Final Years and Death

The Farewell Pilgrimage

In 632 CE, Muhammad led the Hajj pilgrimage, an event that would be his last. During this pilgrimage, he delivered his Farewell Sermon at Mount Arafat, a comprehensive statement of Islamic principles:

“O people, listen to me in earnest, worship Allah, say your five daily prayers, fast during the month of Ramadan, and give your wealth in Zakat. Perform Hajj if you can afford to… All mankind is from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have any superiority over an Arab; white has no superiority over black, nor does black have any superiority over white—except by piety and good action… Remember, one day you will appear before Allah and answer for your deeds. So beware, do not stray from the path of righteousness after I am gone.”

He concluded by asking the vast assembly, “Have I conveyed the message?” When they affirmed that he had, he raised his finger to heaven and declared, “O Allah, bear witness.”

Shortly after this pilgrimage, the verse was revealed: “This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion” (Quran 5:3). Muslims understand this as marking the completion of divine revelation through Muhammad.

Death and Succession

In June 632 CE, Muhammad fell ill with fever and headache. Despite his weakening condition, he continued to lead prayers until his final days. He died on June 8, 632, in the arms of his beloved wife Aisha, in her chamber adjacent to the mosque in Medina. He was buried in that same chamber, which remains one of Islam’s most sacred sites.

His death shocked the community. The Quran itself addresses this moment: “Muhammad is not but a messenger. [Other] messengers have passed on before him. So if he was to die or be killed, would you turn back on your heels [to unbelief]?” (Quran 3:144). Abu Bakr reminded the grief-stricken believers: “If you worship Muhammad, know that Muhammad is dead. But if you worship Allah, know that Allah is ever-living and never dies.”

The question of succession would lead to the Sunni-Shia division that shapes Islam to this day, but all Muslims united in affirming Muhammad’s unique status as the final prophet.

Islamic Understanding: The Perfect Exemplar

Seal of the Prophets

The Quran declares Muhammad to be “the Messenger of Allah and last of the prophets” (Quran 33:40). This concept of Muhammad as Khatam an-Nabiyyin (Seal of the Prophets) is fundamental to Islamic theology. He is not the first prophet—Muslims believe in a long line of prophets from Adam through Abraham, Moses, and Jesus—but he is the final one, bringing God’s complete and perfect revelation.

This finality means that the Quran, revealed through Muhammad, is God’s last testament to humanity. No new revelation or prophet will come after him. The religion of Islam, as conveyed through Muhammad, is complete and sufficient for all times and places until the Day of Judgment.

Muslims understand Muhammad’s prophetic role in continuity with previous messengers. The Quran states: “Say, [O believers], ‘We have believed in Allah and what has been revealed to us and what has been revealed to Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the Descendants and what was given to Moses and Jesus and what was given to the prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and we are Muslims [in submission] to Him’” (Quran 2:136).

Yet Muhammad also holds a special status. He is described as “a mercy to the worlds” (Quran 21:107), sent with a universal message for all humanity, not just a particular people. His prophethood is the culmination of all previous revelations.

The Beautiful Example

Beyond his role as prophet, Muhammad serves as uswa hasana—the beautiful or excellent example for Muslims to follow. The Quran commands: “There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and [who] remembers Allah often” (Quran 33:21).

This understanding shapes every aspect of Muslim life. The Sunnah (the Prophet’s example) and Hadith (reports of his words and deeds) are studied meticulously to guide behavior. Muslims seek to emulate not only Muhammad’s worship and moral conduct but even his daily habits—how he ate, dressed, interacted with family, conducted business, and treated friends and enemies.

Muhammad’s character receives Quranic praise: “And indeed, you are of a great moral character” (Quran 68:4). Islamic tradition emphasizes his qualities: his truthfulness (sidq), trustworthiness (amanah), wisdom (hikmah), courage (shuja’ah), generosity (karam), humility (tawadu’), mercy (rahmah), and justice (‘adl). Stories from his life illustrate these virtues: his gentleness with children, his respect for women, his kindness to animals, his forgiveness of enemies, his concern for the poor and oppressed.

Love of the Prophet

For Muslims, love of Muhammad is not optional sentiment but religious obligation. A hadith states: “None of you truly believes until I am more beloved to him than his father, his child, and all mankind.” This love expresses itself in countless ways: sending blessings upon him (salawat), celebrating his birthday (Mawlid, though controversial among some Muslims), visiting his tomb in Medina, and defending his honor against insult or mockery.

The deep reverence Muslims hold for Muhammad sometimes creates tension. While Islam firmly rejects worship of anyone but God, and Muhammad is understood as fully human (not divine), the love and veneration shown to him can appear to outsiders as approaching worship. Muslims carefully maintain this distinction: Muhammad is beloved, honored, and imitated, but never worshiped. He himself emphasized his humanity: “I am only a human being like you; it has been revealed to me that your god is one God” (Quran 18:110).

Intercessor and Witness

Islamic tradition teaches that on the Day of Judgment, Muhammad will serve as intercessor (shafi’) for his community. While all judgment belongs to God alone, Muhammad’s intercession—granted by divine permission—will plead for mercy for believers. This belief provides comfort and emphasizes the special relationship between the Prophet and his ummah.

Muhammad is also understood as a witness over his community. The Quran states: “So how [will it be] when We bring from every nation a witness and we bring you, [O Muhammad] against these [people] as a witness?” (Quran 4:41). On the Day of Judgment, he will testify regarding his community’s reception or rejection of the message.

Christian Perspectives

Early Christian-Muslim Encounters

Christianity and Islam first encountered each other in Muhammad’s lifetime. The Quran acknowledges Christians as “People of the Book,” and early interactions were sometimes positive. When Muslims faced persecution in Mecca, Muhammad sent some followers to find refuge with the Christian king of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), who protected them after hearing Quranic verses about Mary and Jesus.

However, theological differences were apparent from the beginning. The Quran explicitly rejects core Christian doctrines: the Trinity (“So believe in Allah and His messengers. And do not say, ‘Three’; desist—it is better for you. Indeed, Allah is but one God”—Quran 4:171), the divine sonship of Jesus (“It is not [befitting] for Allah to take a son”—Quran 19:35), and the crucifixion (“And [for] their saying, ‘Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah.’ And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but [another] was made to resemble him to them”—Quran 4:157).

Medieval Polemic and Misunderstanding

As Islam expanded and conquered formerly Christian territories, Christian theological response hardened. Medieval Christian writers often portrayed Muhammad as a false prophet, a heretic, or even as the Antichrist. Lacking accurate information about Islam, some created fantastic legends: that Muhammad was a renegade cardinal who invented a false religion out of ambition, that he trained a dove to eat from his ear to fake receiving revelation, or that he died in a drunken stupor eaten by pigs.

These polemics served political and theological purposes during the Crusades and ongoing Christian-Muslim conflicts, but they bore little resemblance to the historical Muhammad or Muslim beliefs about him. Notable exceptions existed: some Christian scholars, like Peter the Venerable (12th century) and Nicholas of Cusa (15th century), sought more accurate understanding, though still rejecting Muhammad’s prophetic claims.

From a Christian theological perspective, the fundamental issue is christological. If Jesus is the incarnate Son of God and the definitive revelation of God to humanity, then there can be no prophet after him bringing a contradictory message. The New Testament warns: “Beloved, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God, for many false prophets have gone out into the world” (1 John 4:1).

Modern Christian Approaches

Contemporary Christian approaches to Muhammad vary widely:

Exclusivist Position: Many evangelical and conservative Christians maintain that Muhammad was a false prophet who, despite possible sincerity, led millions away from Christ. They point to Jesus’ warning: “Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing but inwardly are ravenous wolves. You will recognize them by their fruits” (Matthew 7:15-16). They argue that Islam’s rejection of Jesus’ divinity and salvific death constitutes bad fruit.

Respectful Disagreement: Many mainstream Christians acknowledge Muhammad’s historical importance and the genuine spirituality of many Muslims while maintaining that Christian revelation in Christ is complete and final. They respect Muhammad as a significant religious leader without accepting his prophetic claims, similar to how they might view Buddha or Confucius.

Inclusivist Openness: Some Christians, influenced by Vatican II and modern interfaith dialogue, take a more generous view. While not accepting Muhammad as a prophet in the biblical sense, they suggest God may have worked through him to bring monotheism and moral renewal to Arabia. They note genuine spiritual fruits in Islam: devotion to God, prayer, charity, justice, and moral discipline.

Theological Exploration: A few Christian theologians have explored whether Muhammad might be understood as a prophet in some qualified sense—perhaps bringing a legitimate message to seventh-century Arabia, even if that message doesn’t supersede or contradict Christ. This remains highly controversial and is rejected by most Christian traditions.

Scriptural Interpretation Debates

Muslims sometimes argue that Muhammad was prophesied in the Bible. They point to Deuteronomy 18:18 (“I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their fellow Israelites”) and Jesus’ promises of the Paraclete/Advocate in John 14-16 as referring to Muhammad.

Christians universally reject these interpretations. They understand Deuteronomy 18 as fulfilled in Jesus (Acts 3:22-23) or as a general promise of ongoing prophecy in Israel. The Paraclete in John is understood as the Holy Spirit, explicitly identified as such in the text: “But the Advocate, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things” (John 14:26).

Jewish Perspectives

Historical Encounters

Jews and Muslims encountered each other from Islam’s beginning. Medina had significant Jewish tribes, and Muhammad initially adopted some Jewish practices (praying toward Jerusalem, fasting on Yom Kippur) and hoped Jews would recognize him as a prophet in the Abrahamic tradition.

However, most Medinan Jews rejected Muhammad’s prophetic claims. From a Jewish perspective, prophecy had ceased centuries earlier, and Muhammad’s message contradicted Torah. The Quran, while honoring Moses and the Torah, claimed that Jews had corrupted their scriptures and failed to follow them properly—a charge Jews naturally rejected.

Tensions escalated into conflict. After the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad ordered the execution of the men of the Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe accused of treachery. While Islamic tradition presents this as justified punishment for treason, it remains a painful historical memory in Jewish-Muslim relations.

Theological Assessment

Jewish theology has no category for a prophet after the biblical period. The traditional view is that prophecy ended with Malachi or shortly thereafter. Maimonides (12th century), the great Jewish philosopher, addressed Islam in his legal code. While he viewed Christianity as idolatry (due to the Trinity and incarnation), he acknowledged Islam’s strict monotheism. However, he firmly rejected Muhammad’s prophetic claims.

Medieval Jewish scholars living under Muslim rule generally treated Muhammad and Islam with careful respect, given their vulnerable status, but did not accept prophetic claims. Some Jewish polemics argued that Muhammad’s illiteracy (if historical) would disqualify him from prophecy, since Jewish tradition expects prophets to be learned in Torah.

Modern Jewish-Muslim Relations

Modern Jewish perspectives on Muhammad are shaped by both historical memory and contemporary politics. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict has complicated Jewish-Muslim relations globally, making dispassionate theological discussion difficult.

Some Jewish scholars engaged in interfaith dialogue emphasize common ground: ethical monotheism, opposition to idolatry, shared reverence for Abraham, Moses, and other patriarchs, and similar legal-religious frameworks (halakha and sharia). They may speak respectfully of Muhammad as a significant religious reformer who brought monotheism to Arabia, without accepting his prophetic status.

Others, particularly in more conservative circles, view Muhammad’s claims with skepticism or opposition, seeing Islam’s rapid expansion and conquest of Jewish communities as historically threatening. The dhimmi status of Jews under Islamic rule—with its mix of protection and subjugation—creates complex historical memory.

Comparative Themes and Tensions

Prophecy and Finality

All three Abrahamic traditions claim some form of finality or completeness in their revelation, creating inherent theological conflict:

• Jews affirm the complete sufficiency of Torah, with prophecy having ceased
• Christians proclaim Christ as the full and final revelation of God (Hebrews 1:1-2)
• Muslims declare Muhammad the Seal of the Prophets bringing complete divine guidance

Each tradition’s claim to finality necessarily excludes the others’ later claimants. This is not merely historical accident but theological necessity from each perspective.

The Prophet and Scripture

Muhammad’s relationship to the Quran parallels yet differs from Moses’ relationship to the Torah and Christianity’s understanding of Christ and Scripture:

• Muslims believe the Quran is the literal, uncreated word of God, with Muhammad as the faithful transmitter but not author
• Jews hold Torah as divine revelation given through Moses, who wrote it under divine inspiration
• Christians see Christ himself as the Word made flesh, with Scripture as inspired human witness to divine revelation

These differing models of revelation and prophetic mediation shape each tradition’s self-understanding and view of the others.

Moral Exemplar vs. Savior

Islam presents Muhammad as the perfect moral exemplar—fully human, capable of sin (though prophets are protected from major sins), yet the best model for human conduct. Christianity presents Jesus as not merely an exemplar but as Savior—both fully human and fully divine, sinless, whose death and resurrection accomplish salvation.

This fundamental difference shapes religious practice: Muslims seek to imitate Muhammad’s example, Christians seek to be united with Christ through faith and sacrament. The focus shifts from imitation to participation, from following a model to being transformed by grace.

Modern Significance and Challenges

Devotion and Discipleship

For Muslims worldwide, Muhammad remains vibrantly present in daily life. His name is invoked constantly: “Peace be upon him” follows every mention. His example guides decisions about diet, dress, family life, business ethics, and social relations. His hadith are quoted to resolve legal disputes, moral dilemmas, and theological questions.

Islamic art, forbidden from depicting human figures in religious contexts, has developed sophisticated calligraphic traditions celebrating Muhammad’s name and attributes. Nasheed (Islamic devotional songs) praise him. Pilgrims visiting Medina stand before his tomb, weeping with love and longing to see the one they love most after God.

This intense devotion sometimes creates challenges. The satirical depictions of Muhammad by European cartoonists, or perceived insults in films or books, have sparked violent protests and attacks, reflecting the deep offense Muslims feel at disrespect toward their beloved Prophet. Navigating religious freedom, free speech, and religious sensibilities remains an ongoing challenge in pluralistic societies.

Interfaith Understanding

Modern interfaith dialogue has created new possibilities for mutual understanding and respect regarding Muhammad. Christians and Jews, while maintaining their theological convictions, increasingly recognize the need to speak accurately and respectfully about figures sacred to other traditions.

Some principles have emerged:

• Distinguishing between theological assessment and personal respect
• Acknowledging Muhammad’s undeniable historical impact and the genuine spirituality he inspired
• Avoiding caricature, mockery, or deliberate offense
• Seeking accurate understanding of how Muslims actually view Muhammad, rather than relying on stereotypes
• Finding common ethical ground while acknowledging theological differences

These conversations remain difficult and sometimes uncomfortable, but they represent growth from medieval polemics toward neighborly coexistence.

Historical-Critical Questions

Modern scholarship has subjected Muhammad’s life to historical-critical analysis, as it has with Moses, Jesus, and other religious founders. Questions about the historical accuracy of hadith, the compilation of the Quran, the reliability of early biographical sources (sirah), and the relationship between Arabian religious context and Islam’s emergence have generated extensive academic debate.

For many Muslims, such critical approaches feel disrespectful or threatening to faith. The Quran and hadith are not merely historical documents but sacred texts that shape identity and practice. Yet Muslim scholars increasingly engage with historical methodology, producing sophisticated works that maintain faith commitments while employing critical tools.

This tension between faith and historical criticism is not unique to Islam—Jews and Christians navigate similar challenges—but it remains particularly sensitive regarding Muhammad given his central role and the living nature of Islamic devotion to him.

The Prophet’s Enduring Significance

Muhammad ibn Abdullah transformed world history. Within a century of his death, Islam had spread from Spain to India. Today, nearly a quarter of humanity identifies as Muslim, following the path he established and seeking to emulate his example. Five times daily, billions invoke blessings upon him after reciting the shahada.

For Muslims, Muhammad is not merely a historical founder but a continuing presence. His sunnah guides legal rulings. His intercession is hoped for. His love is felt personally and deeply. To know Islam, one must understand Muhammad; to understand Muhammad, one must recognize the profound love and reverence Muslims hold for him.

For Christians and Jews, Muhammad represents a different challenge: how to relate to a figure claimed as a prophet by billions, whose message contradicts core tenets of their own faiths, yet whose historical impact cannot be denied and whose followers are neighbors, colleagues, and fellow citizens? The answer requires both theological clarity about one’s own convictions and human respect for those who believe differently.

In an interconnected world where Christians, Jews, and Muslims must live together, the question of Muhammad cannot be avoided. It calls for honesty about differences, respect amid disagreement, and the recognition that how we speak about each other’s sacred figures reveals much about our own commitment to truth, justice, and neighborly love—values all three Abrahamic traditions affirm, even as they disagree about ultimate things.

The Prophet of Islam remains a light for those who follow him, a question mark for those who do not, and an unavoidable reality for all who seek to understand our religiously plural world. In that sense, Muhammad’s significance extends far beyond the Muslim ummah, shaping the possibilities and challenges of human coexistence in the twenty-first century.