Sunnah

The practices, teachings, and example of Prophet Muhammad, serving as the second source of Islamic law and guidance after the Quran. Sunnah encompasses Muhammad’s words, actions, and tacit approvals, preserved primarily through hadith collections. For Muslims, following the Sunnah means emulating the Prophet’s character and conduct in all aspects of life.

Definition and Scope

Etymology

Arabic: سُنَّة (Sunnah)

• Literally: “trodden path,” “way,” “custom,” “practice”
• Refers to the normative example of Muhammad
• Plural: Sunan

What Constitutes Sunnah

Three categories:

1. Sunnah Qawliyyah (Verbal Sunnah):

   • Muhammad’s sayings and statements
   • Recorded in hadith collections
   • Includes teachings, judgments, explanations

2. Sunnah Fi’liyyah (Practical Sunnah):

   • Muhammad’s actions and deeds
   • How he performed worship, lived daily life
   • Examples: method of prayer, ablution, Hajj rituals

3. Sunnah Taqririyyah (Tacit Approval):

   • Actions Muhammad witnessed and did not forbid
   • His silence/approval of companions’ actions
   • Indicates permissibility

Quranic Foundation

Command to Follow Muhammad

Quran 33:21:

“There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and [who] remembers Allah often.”

Quran 4:80:

“He who obeys the Messenger has obeyed Allah.”

Quran 3:31-32:

“Say, [O Muhammad], ‘If you should love Allah, then follow me, [so] Allah will love you and forgive you your sins. And Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.’ Say, ‘Obey Allah and the Messenger.’ But if they turn away - then indeed, Allah does not like the disbelievers.”

Sunnah’s Relationship to Quran

Complementary, not contradictory:

• Explains Quranic verses
• Provides practical application
• Adds details where Quran is general
• Independent rulings where Quran is silent

Examples:

• Quran: “Establish prayer” (general command)
• Sunnah: Demonstrates precisely how (5 times, specific movements, recitations)
• Quran: “Give zakat” (obligation stated)
• Sunnah: Specifies amounts, recipients, conditions

Categories by Legal Status

Islamic scholars classify Sunnah actions into five categories:

1. Fard/Wajib (Obligatory)

Actions Muhammad commanded as compulsory:

• Five daily prayers
• Fasting in Ramadan
• Reward for doing, punishment for neglecting

2. Mustahabb/Mandub (Recommended)

Actions Muhammad did regularly but didn’t make obligatory:

• Sunnah prayers before/after obligatory prayers
• Night prayers (Tahajjud)
• Fasting Mondays and Thursdays
• Reward for doing, no punishment for leaving

3. Mubah (Permissible)

Actions Muhammad allowed without praise or blame:

• Type of food eaten (within halal guidelines)
• Choice of clothing style (within modesty requirements)
• Neutral—neither rewarded nor punished

4. Makruh (Disliked)

Actions Muhammad discouraged but didn’t prohibit:

• Eating garlic before going to mosque
• Praying when very tired or hungry
• No punishment, but better to avoid

5. Haram (Forbidden)

Actions Muhammad prohibited:

• Consuming alcohol, pork
• Lying, backbiting, stealing
• Punishment for doing (sin)

Preservation of Sunnah

Hadith Collections

The Six Major Collections (Kutub as-Sittah):

1. Sahih Bukhari (Muhammad al-Bukhari, d. 870 CE):

   • Most authentic collection (Sunni view)
   • ~7,000 hadith (with repetitions)
   • Stringent authentication standards

2. Sahih Muslim (Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, d. 875 CE):

   • Second most authentic
   • ~7,500 hadith
   • Different organization than Bukhari

3. Sunan Abu Dawood (Abu Dawood, d. 889 CE):

   • Legal hadith focus
   • ~5,000 hadith

4. Jami’ at-Tirmidhi (Tirmidhi, d. 892 CE):

   • Includes grading of hadith
   • ~4,000 hadith

5. Sunan an-Nasa’i (Nasa’i, d. 915 CE):

   • Focused on legal matters
   • ~5,000 hadith

6. Sunan Ibn Majah (Ibn Majah, d. 887 CE):

   • ~4,000 hadith
   • Some weaker chains than others

Shia Collections:

• Al-Kafi (Kulayni)
• Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih (Ibn Babawayh)
• Tahdhib al-Ahkam (Tusi)
• Al-Istibsar (Tusi)

Science of Hadith (‘Ilm al-Hadith)

Authentication process:

• Isnad (chain of narrators): Must be continuous, reliable narrators
• Matn (text): Must not contradict Quran or reason
• Narrators evaluated for: memory, honesty, piety, accuracy

Classifications:

• Sahih (authentic): Highest grade
• Hasan (good): Acceptable but slightly weaker than sahih
• Da’if (weak): Questionable chain or content
• Mawdu’ (fabricated): False, rejected

Examples of Sunnah in Daily Life

Worship

Prayer:

• Precise movements and recitations
• Times of day
• Congregational prayer format

Ablution (Wudu):

• Specific order of washing body parts
• Beginning with “Bismillah”

Fasting:

• Breaking fast with dates and water
• Pre-dawn meal (Suhoor)

Personal Conduct

Greeting:

• “Assalamu alaikum” (Peace be upon you)
• Responding with “Wa alaikum assalam”

Eating:

• Eating with right hand
• Saying “Bismillah” before eating
• Saying “Alhamdulillah” after
• Not wasting food

Sleeping:

• Sleeping on right side
• Reciting specific supplications
• Making ablution before sleep

Hygiene:

• Brushing teeth (Miswak)
• Trimming nails, removing body hair
• Cleanliness emphasized

Social Interactions

Kindness:

• To parents, especially mothers
• To neighbors
• To orphans and widows

Speech:

• Truthfulness
• Avoiding gossip and backbiting
• Speaking gently

Character:

• Patience in adversity
• Gratitude for blessings
• Humility, not arrogance

Areas Covered by Sunnah

Family Life

• Marriage etiquette
• Treatment of spouses
• Raising children
• Family responsibilities

Business Ethics

• Honesty in transactions
• Prohibition of usury (riba)
• Fair weights and measures
• Fulfilling contracts

Governance

• Justice for all
• Consultation (Shura)
• Protection of minorities
• Rule of law

Warfare

• Rules of engagement
• Treatment of prisoners
• Protection of non-combatants
• When war is permissible

Sunni vs. Shia Views

Sunni Perspective

Definition: “Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jama’ah” (People of the Sunnah and Community)

• Follow Sunnah as transmitted through companions
• Four major schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, Hanbali) all Sunnah-based
• Companions considered reliable transmitters
• Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim most authoritative

Shia Perspective

Key Differences:

• Emphasize transmission through Ali and his descendants (Imams)
• Some companions considered unreliable
• Different hadith collections
• Imams’ teachings part of prophetic legacy
• Greater role for reasoning (ijtihad)

Common Ground:

• Both follow Muhammad’s example
• Both use hadith methodology
• Both integrate Sunnah with Quran

Contemporary Application

Challenges

Authenticity:

• Fabricated hadith exist
• Debating weak vs. authentic narrations
• Modern scholarship examining chains

Context:

• Distinguishing universal principles from culturally specific practices
• 7th-century Arabia vs. 21st-century world
• What’s eternally binding vs. time-bound?

Interpretation:

• Literal vs. contextual reading
• Who has authority to interpret?
• Balancing tradition with modern realities

Modern Practice

Selective Application:

• Some Muslims follow Sunnah meticulously in all details
• Others focus on general principles
• Debate over beard, dress, minor practices

Revivalist Movements:

• Salafism: Return to “pure” Sunnah
• Rejecting later innovations (bid’ah)
• Controversy over what constitutes authentic Sunnah

Progressive Interpretations:

• Distinguishing prophetic vs. cultural practices
• Gender equality concerns
• Adapting to contemporary contexts

Sunnah and Sharia

Source of Law

Primary sources of Islamic law:

1. Quran: Divine revelation
2. Sunnah: Prophetic example
3. Ijma: Scholarly consensus
4. Qiyas: Analogical reasoning

Sunnah is second only to Quran in authority.

Legal Rulings

Without Sunnah:

• Prayer method unknown
• Zakat amounts unclear
• Hajj rituals undefined
• Many laws impossible to derive from Quran alone

Sunnah provides practical legislation where Quran gives principles.

Significance

For Muslims, Sunnah is:

• Living interpretation of Quran: Muhammad embodied Quranic teachings
• Complete life model: Covers personal, social, political, spiritual life
• Bridge between revelation and practice: Makes abstract principles concrete
• Measure of love for Allah: Following Muhammad proves love for Allah (Quran 3:31)
• Path to success: Muhammad’s life proved successful (spiritual and worldly)

Aisha’s Testimony

When asked about Muhammad’s character, his wife Aisha said: “His character was the Quran”—meaning he perfectly embodied Quranic values.

Debates and Controversies

Hadith Criticism

Sunni response: Rigorous authentication methodology Skeptics: Hadith compiled centuries after Muhammad; possibility of fabrication Quranists (minority): Reject all hadith, Quran alone sufficient

Bid’ah (Innovation)

Definition: Practices not from Sunnah Good innovation: Scholar differences (Maliki vs. others) Bad innovation: Anything contradicting Sunnah Examples debated: Birthday celebrations (Mawlid), certain Sufi practices

Practical Impact

Sunnah shapes Muslim life from birth to death:

• Birth: Adhan recited in baby’s ear
• Eating: Right hand, Bismillah, no wasting
• Dressing: Modesty, cleanliness
• Working: Honesty, excellence
• Marriage: Rights and responsibilities defined
• Death: Burial practices, condolences

Every action has Sunnah guidance—from entering bathroom (left foot first) to leaving home (right foot first, supplication).

Significance

The Sunnah represents Islam’s practical genius—revelation applied to real life. Where other religions might have only scriptures or theological principles, Islam has Muhammad’s lived example: How did he eat? Sleep? Pray? Treat enemies? Conduct business? Raise children? Govern?

This comprehensive model allows Muslims to follow Islam in minute detail or general principle—from prophetic beard length to prophetic mercy. The Sunnah made Islam a complete way of life (deen), not just a set of beliefs. It transformed abstract commandments (“be just”) into concrete actions (how Muhammad judged disputes).

For believers, every mundane act—eating, sleeping, greeting—becomes worship when done according to Sunnah. This sanctifies daily life, turning routine into ritual, habit into ibadah (worship). The goal isn’t slavish imitation but embodying prophetic character: mercy, justice, humility, generosity.

Critics say this fossilizes 7th-century practices. Defenders say it preserves timeless values through authentic prophetic example. Either way, Sunnah remains central to Islamic identity—the living tradition connecting 1.8 billion Muslims to their Prophet, and through him, to Allah.