Muhammad’s Prophetic Mission: From Mecca to the Umma

The foundational narrative of Islam: Muhammad receives divine revelation in a cave, endures persecution in Mecca, migrates to Medina, establishes the first Muslim community, and returns triumphantly to purify the Kaaba. Unlike other prophets, Muhammad’s mission combined spiritual leadership with political authority, creating a unified religious and social order.

The Early Years: Orphan to Merchant

Muhammad was born in Mecca around 570 CE into the Quraysh tribe, the custodians of the Kaaba. His father Abdullah died before his birth, and his mother Aminah died when he was six. He was raised first by his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, then by his uncle Abu Talib.

Despite his orphaned status, Muhammad gained a reputation for honesty and trustworthiness, earning the nickname “al-Amin” (the trustworthy). At 25, he married Khadijah, a wealthy widow fifteen years his senior who had employed him to manage her caravan trade. Their marriage was deeply loving and monogamous until her death 25 years later.

Muhammad was known for his contemplative nature, often retreating to a cave on Mount Hira outside Mecca for meditation and reflection.

The Night of Power: First Revelation

In 610 CE, during the month of Ramadan, Muhammad was meditating in the cave of Hira when the angel Jibril (Gabriel) appeared to him. The angel commanded: “Iqra!” (Read! or Recite!)

Muhammad, who was illiterate, replied: “I cannot read.”

The angel embraced him tightly three times, each time repeating the command, until Muhammad recited the first verses of what would become the Quran:

“Read in the name of your Lord who created— Created man from a clinging substance. Read, and your Lord is the most Generous— Who taught by the pen— Taught man that which he knew not.” (Quran 96:1-5)

Terrified and trembling, Muhammad returned home to Khadijah, who covered him with a cloak and comforted him. She took him to her cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal, a Christian scholar, who confirmed that Muhammad had encountered the same angel that came to Moses and declared him a prophet.

This night, known as Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Power), marks the beginning of Islam’s revelation.

The Meccan Period: Message and Persecution

The Early Message (610-613 CE)

For the first three years, Muhammad preached quietly to family and close friends. The core message was radical for polytheistic Mecca:

• Tawhid (monotheism): There is no god but Allah
• Social justice: Care for orphans, free slaves, help the poor
• Day of Judgment: All will be held accountable for their deeds
• Prophethood: Muhammad is the messenger continuing the line of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus

The first converts included:

• Khadijah - his wife, first believer
• Ali - his young cousin
• Zayd ibn Haritha - his freed slave
• Abu Bakr - his close friend, who brought others including Uthman and Talha

Public Preaching and Opposition (613-619 CE)

After three years, Allah commanded Muhammad to proclaim the message publicly. He climbed Mount Safa and warned the Quraysh of coming judgment if they continued in idolatry.

The Meccan elite, whose power and wealth depended on the Kaaba as a polytheistic pilgrimage site, turned hostile:

Economic pressure: Boycotted Muhammad’s clan, the Banu Hashim Social persecution: Mocked and insulted believers Physical violence: Tortured and killed vulnerable converts, especially slaves

• Bilal ibn Rabah, an Abyssinian slave, was tortured in the desert sun until Abu Bakr purchased and freed him
• Sumayyah bint Khayyat became Islam’s first martyr when she was killed for refusing to renounce her faith

Muhammad’s uncle Abu Talib, though never converting to Islam, protected him from assassination. Another uncle, Abu Lahab, became one of his fiercest opponents.

The Year of Sorrow (619 CE)

Within months, Muhammad suffered devastating losses:

• Khadijah died, his beloved wife and first supporter
• Abu Talib died, removing his tribal protection

Without Khadijah’s emotional support and Abu Talib’s political protection, Muhammad’s position became precarious.

The Night Journey and Ascension

During this difficult period, Muhammad experienced Al-Isra wa’l-Mi’raj (the Night Journey and Ascension):

The Night Journey: The angel Jibril took Muhammad on the winged steed Buraq from Mecca to Jerusalem, to the site of the ancient Temple (the Dome of the Rock now stands there).

The Ascension: From Jerusalem, Muhammad ascended through the seven heavens, meeting previous prophets at each level—Adam, Jesus, Moses, Abraham, and others. At the highest level, he came into the presence of Allah, who prescribed the five daily prayers (Salat) for Muslims.

This mystical experience solidified Muhammad’s prophetic authority and gave him direct connection to Jerusalem, linking Islam to the earlier prophetic traditions.

The Hijra: Migration to Medina

The Pledge of Aqaba (621-622 CE)

Representatives from Yathrib (later renamed Medina), a city torn by tribal warfare, invited Muhammad to come as an arbitrator and leader. At Aqaba, near Mecca, they pledged allegiance to him and Islam.

The Migration (622 CE)

Meccan leaders, fearing Muhammad’s growing influence, plotted to assassinate him. Allah warned Muhammad through revelation, and he planned a secret escape.

On the night of the assassination attempt, Ali slept in Muhammad’s bed as a decoy while Muhammad and Abu Bakr fled to a cave in Mount Thawr. According to tradition, Allah protected them by having a spider weave a web and a dove nest at the cave entrance, convincing pursuers no one had entered recently.

After three days, they journeyed to Medina, arriving on September 24, 622 CE. This migration—the Hijra—was so significant that it marks Year 1 of the Islamic calendar.

The Medinan Period: Building the Umma

The Constitution of Medina (622 CE)

Muhammad established a revolutionary political document—the Constitution of Medina—which:

• United the Medinan tribes (Aws and Khazraj) under Islam
• Granted religious freedom to Jewish tribes
• Established the Umma (community of believers) transcending tribal loyalty
• Made Muhammad the final arbitrator in disputes
• Created mutual defense obligations

This was one of history’s first written constitutions, establishing religious pluralism under Islamic leadership.

The Prophet’s Mosque and Community

Muhammad personally helped build the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, which served as:

• Place of worship
• Political headquarters
• Community center
• Muhammad’s residence (with rooms for his wives)

He established key Islamic practices:

• Five daily prayers facing Jerusalem (later changed to Mecca)
• Friday congregational prayer (Jumu’ah)
• Fasting during Ramadan
• Obligatory charity (Zakat)

Conflict with Mecca: The Military Phase

The Meccan Quraysh, viewing Islam’s growth as an existential threat, launched military campaigns against Medina.

Battle of Badr (624 CE): Muhammad led 313 Muslims against a 1,000-strong Meccan army protecting a trade caravan. Against overwhelming odds, the Muslims won decisively, capturing or killing many Quraysh leaders. Muslims interpreted this as divine validation.

Battle of Uhud (625 CE): The Meccans returned with 3,000 troops. Initially winning, the Muslims suffered a reversal when archers abandoned their posts. Muhammad was wounded, and many Muslims died, including his uncle Hamza. The Quran later taught that this setback resulted from disobedience and was a test of faith.

Battle of the Trench (627 CE): The Quraysh assembled a coalition of 10,000 troops to destroy Medina. On the advice of Salman the Persian, Muhammad ordered a defensive trench dug around Medina—a strategy unknown in Arabia. The siege failed after two weeks due to harsh weather and internal dissension.

After the battle, one Jewish tribe (Banu Qurayza) was accused of conspiring with the enemy during the siege and was severely punished—a controversial event in Islamic history.

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628 CE)

In 628 CE, Muhammad led 1,400 Muslims on pilgrimage to Mecca. The Quraysh blocked their entry, leading to tense negotiations at Hudaybiyyah.

The resulting treaty seemed unfavorable to Muslims:

• No pilgrimage this year, but Muslims could return next year
• Ten-year truce
• Muslims must return any Meccan who converts to Islam
• Meccans need not return Muslims who renounce Islam

Many Muslims, including Umar ibn al-Khattab, were outraged. But the Quran called it a “clear victory” (Quran 48:1), and history proved this right: the peace allowed Islam to spread rapidly through Arabia, and many Meccans converted during the truce period.

The Conquest of Mecca (630 CE)

Two years later, the Quraysh violated the treaty by attacking a tribe allied with Muslims. Muhammad assembled an army of 10,000 and marched on Mecca.

Recognizing the overwhelming force and the futility of resistance, Abu Sufyan—one of Islam’s fiercest opponents—converted and negotiated Mecca’s peaceful surrender.

The Purification of the Kaaba

Muhammad entered Mecca humbly, bowing on his camel. He proceeded to the Kaaba and:

• Circled it seven times
• Touched the Black Stone
• Destroyed the 360 idols inside, reciting: “Truth has come and falsehood has vanished” (Quran 17:81)
• Declared the Kaaba restored to its original purpose as the house of Allah built by Abraham and Ishmael

General Amnesty

Despite years of persecution, Muhammad granted general amnesty to the Meccans, declaring: “You may go, you are free.” This magnanimity led to mass conversions.

Only a handful of individuals who had committed specific crimes (murder, torture) were excluded from amnesty.

The Unification of Arabia

Following the conquest of Mecca, tribes throughout Arabia sent delegations to pledge allegiance. By 631 CE, most of the Arabian Peninsula had accepted Islam through:

• Diplomatic missions
• Treaties and alliances
• Military expeditions against resistant tribes
• Voluntary conversion

The ancient tribal system was being transformed into a unified religious community.

The Farewell Pilgrimage (632 CE)

In March 632 CE, Muhammad led the Hajj pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca with over 100,000 Muslims—the Farewell Pilgrimage.

On Mount Arafat, he delivered his final sermon, establishing key principles:

Universal equality: “All mankind is from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have superiority over an Arab; a white has no superiority over a black, nor does a black have superiority over a white—except by piety and good action.”

Women’s rights: “You have rights over your women and your women have rights over you… treat your women well and be kind to them.”

Sanctity of life and property: “Your lives and properties are sacred.”

Final revelation: “This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion” (Quran 5:3).

He asked three times: “Have I conveyed the message?” The massive crowd affirmed: “Yes!” He concluded: “O Allah, bear witness.”

The Death of the Prophet

Three months after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill with severe headaches and fever. During his final days:

• He asked permission from his wives to be nursed in Aisha’s room
• He continued to lead prayers when able
• When too weak, he asked Abu Bakr to lead prayers—a signal many took as designating his successor
• He freed his slaves and gave away his remaining wealth
• His last words were reportedly: “Rather, the highest companion in paradise” (choosing eternal life over earthly recovery)

Muhammad died on June 8, 632 CE, at age 63, with his head in Aisha’s lap.

The Succession Crisis

When Umar announced Muhammad’s death, many refused to believe it. He declared: “Whoever worships Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad is dead. But whoever worships Allah, let him know that Allah lives and never dies.”

The question of succession immediately arose:

• Ali and the Banu Hashim clan prepared Muhammad’s body for burial
• Meanwhile, the Ansar (Medinan Muslims) gathered at Saqifah to choose a leader
• Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubayda rushed to the meeting
• After heated debate, Abu Bakr was chosen as the first Caliph (successor/deputy)

This decision would later create the Sunni-Shia split:

• Sunnis accept Abu Bakr’s election as legitimate
• Shias believe Ali was Muhammad’s designated successor and was unjustly passed over

Muhammad was buried in Aisha’s room in Medina, which was later incorporated into the Prophet’s Mosque. His tomb remains one of Islam’s holiest sites.

In Islam: The Seal of the Prophets

Islam regards Muhammad as the final and greatest prophet:

The Perfect Human (Al-Insan al-Kamil)

• Seal of Prophethood: The last prophet sent to humanity; no prophet will come after him
• Universal messenger: Sent not just to Arabs but to all humanity and jinn
• Living Quran: Aisha described his character as “the Quran walking”
• Perfect example: The Sunnah (his words, actions, and approvals) is the second source of Islamic law after the Quran

Multiple Roles

Muhammad uniquely combined roles:

• Prophet (Nabi): Recipient of divine revelation
• Messenger (Rasul): Brought a new scripture and law
• Political leader: Governed a state
• Military commander: Led defensive and offensive campaigns
• Judge: Arbitrated disputes
• Husband and father: Model for family life
• Merchant: Understood economic life

Core Teachings

Muhammad’s message emphasized:

• Tawhid: Absolute monotheism, rejecting all forms of polytheism and idolatry
• Prophetic continuity: Confirms and corrects earlier revelations to Jews and Christians
• Social justice: Radical for 7th-century Arabia—women’s rights, orphan care, slave manumission, wealth redistribution
• Submission to Allah: “Islam” means submission; true freedom comes through obedience to divine will
• Ummah: Transcending tribal, racial, and national boundaries

Veneration

Muslims express deep reverence for Muhammad:

• Saying “Peace be upon him” (PBUH) after mentioning his name
• Following his example in daily life (prayer, diet, dress, manners)
• Celebrating Mawlid (his birthday) in many traditions
• Visiting his tomb in Medina as part of pilgrimage
• Strongly prohibiting depictions of his image

In Christianity: A False Prophet

Christianity views Muhammad with suspicion or rejection:

Medieval Christian View

• False prophet: Denies Christ’s divinity, death, and resurrection—core Christian doctrines
• Heretic: Seen as reviving Arian heresy (denying Christ’s divinity) and Nestorian errors
• Antichrist figure: Some medieval writers portrayed Muhammad as a forerunner of the Antichrist
• Violent impostor: Portrayed as spreading religion by the sword rather than spiritual conviction

Modern Christian Perspectives

Views have become more nuanced:

Exclusivist view: Muhammad was sincere but deceived; Islam is fundamentally incompatible with Christianity

Respectful disagreement: Muhammad may have been a genuine religious reformer for Arabia, but Christians cannot accept his prophetic claims because they contradict core Christian doctrine

Pluralist view: Muhammad was one of many religious leaders through whom God worked, though Christians follow a different path

All Christian traditions affirm that:

• Jesus is the final and complete revelation of God, not Muhammad
• The Quran’s denial of the Trinity and Christ’s divinity is fundamentally wrong
• Salvation comes through Christ alone, not through Islamic submission

In Judaism: Outside Covenant History

Judaism views Muhammad with less theological engagement:

Traditional View

• Not a prophet: Prophecy ended with Malachi; Muhammad comes too late
• For Gentiles: May be a legitimate teacher for non-Jews, but not part of Jewish covenant history
• Influenced by Judaism: Borrowed from Jewish teachings but misunderstood key concepts

Medieval Jewish Experience

Jews under Islamic rule (Dhimmi status):

• Generally better treatment than under Christian rule during the same period
• Second-class citizens with restrictions, but usually able to practice Judaism
• Notable Jewish flourishing in Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain)
• Prominent Jewish figures served in Islamic courts (e.g., Maimonides)

Modern Jewish Views

• Respectful neutrality: Muhammad is historically significant but theologically irrelevant to Judaism
• Shared monotheism: Appreciate Islam’s strict monotheism compared to Christian Trinity
• Political complexity: Israeli-Palestinian conflict complicates Jewish-Muslim relations

Theological Significance

Prophethood and Revelation

Muhammad’s experience raises key questions:

• Nature of revelation: Direct divine speech (Islamic view) or human religious genius (critical view)?
• Prophetic authentication: How to verify prophetic claims? Miracles, scripture, moral fruit?
• Continuity vs. discontinuity: Does Muhammad confirm or contradict previous prophets?

Religion and Politics

Muhammad’s life established a unique model:

• Theo-political unity: No separation of mosque and state in classical Islam
• Political authority: Religious leader wielding military and judicial power
• Conquest and conversion: Role of military expansion in religious growth
• Dhimmi system: Legal framework for religious minorities under Islamic rule

Scripture and Interpretation

The Quran’s relationship to Muhammad:

• Divine authorship: Muslims believe the Quran is Allah’s literal words, not Muhammad’s
• Preservation: Memorized during Muhammad’s lifetime, compiled shortly after his death
• Interpretive authority: Muhammad’s Sunnah provides authoritative interpretation
• Abrogation: Later revelations can supersede earlier ones, raising questions of progression

Historical and Critical Questions

Historicity

Traditional Islamic sources:

• Sirat Rasul Allah (Ibn Ishaq, 8th century)
• Hadith collections (9th century)
• Historical chronicles (al-Tabari, 10th century)

Critical historical issues:

• Sources written 150-250 years after Muhammad’s death
• Legendary embellishment vs. historical core
• Limited contemporary non-Muslim sources
• Archaeological evidence confirms 7th-century Arabian context but not specific events

Scholarly consensus:

• Muhammad certainly existed (unlike mythicist theories)
• Core narrative (prophet in Mecca, migration to Medina, military success, Arabian unification) is historical
• Specific details, miracles, and conversations are harder to verify
• Quran likely reflects Muhammad’s lifetime or shortly after

Controversial Aspects

Military campaigns: Critics point to Muhammad’s military leadership as incompatible with prophethood; Muslims respond that he fought defensive wars and established just-war principles

Multiple marriages: Muhammad had at least 11 wives after Khadijah’s death. Critics see this as evidence of moral failure; Muslims explain these were often political alliances or care for widows, and the Quran limits ordinary Muslims to four wives

Treatment of enemies: Execution of Banu Qurayza tribe raises moral questions; Muslims argue it followed the treason laws of the time and was decreed by an arbitrator the tribe themselves had chosen

Slavery: Muhammad owned slaves but encouraged manumission and improved slave treatment; critics argue he should have abolished it entirely

Legacy

Muhammad’s impact on world history is immeasurable:

Religious Revolution

• Created the world’s second-largest religion (1.9 billion Muslims)
• Unified Arabian Peninsula under monotheism
• Preserved and spread literacy through Quranic memorization
• Established five pillars of worship practiced by billions

Political and Military Achievement

• Transformed tribal Arabia into a unified political entity
• Created a theo-political model that shaped Islamic civilization for 1,400 years
• Launched expansion that created an empire from Spain to India within a century of his death
• Established legal and governmental frameworks still influential today

Social Reform

For 7th-century Arabia, Muhammad’s reforms were revolutionary:

• Women’s rights: Inheritance, divorce rights, consent in marriage, education
• Slavery: Encouraged manumission, improved treatment, spiritual equality
• Orphan care: Made a religious obligation
• Usury prohibition: Banned exploitative lending
• Racial equality: Explicitly taught in farewell sermon

Cultural Influence

• Arabic became a major world language through Quranic study
• Islamic art, architecture, and calligraphy developed distinctive forms
• Islamic golden age (8th-13th centuries) advanced science, mathematics, medicine, philosophy
• Hajj pilgrimage created world’s oldest continuous international gathering

Muhammad’s Character

Both admirers and critics focus on Muhammad’s character:

Reported virtues:

• Honest and trustworthy (even enemies admitted this)
• Merciful (general amnesty at Mecca’s conquest)
• Humble (lived simply despite power and wealth)
• Courageous (fought in battles personally)
• Compassionate (wept at graves, cared for animals)
• Just (applied law equally to all)

Reported flaws/controversies:

• Ordered executions of enemies
• Married very young Aisha (age disputed, likely 9-12)
• Seized property from defeated enemies
• Allowed violence against opponents

Muslim perspective: Muhammad was human and made mistakes, but his overall character was exemplary and divinely guided

Critical perspective: Muhammad’s character shows he was a political and military leader, not a prophet

The Question of Muhammad

No figure in religious history generates more divergent views than Muhammad:

To Muslims: The greatest human who ever lived, the final messenger of God, the perfect example for all humanity, beloved of Allah, intercessor on Judgment Day

To Christians: A sincere but misguided teacher at best, a false prophet or Antichrist figure at worst, someone who led millions away from Christ

To Jews: A historically significant but theologically irrelevant figure who borrowed from Judaism without understanding it

To secularists: A remarkable political and religious leader who unified Arabia and launched a world religion, whether by sincere belief, political genius, or both

To critical historians: An Arabian religious reformer whose message resonated with his time and place, creating a movement that outlived and transcended his original context

The continuing influence of Muhammad—whether as prophet, political leader, military commander, social reformer, or some combination—makes him among the most influential individuals in human history. More than a billion people daily declare “Muhammad is the messenger of Allah” in their prayers, seek to emulate his example in their lives, and await his intercession in the hereafter.

From the cave on Mount Hira to the conquest of Mecca, from 313 Muslims at Badr to 1.9 billion today, Muhammad’s life shaped not just a religion but the course of civilizations, making him—in the eyes of Muslims—the mercy to all the worlds, and—in the assessment of historians—one of the most consequential figures who ever lived.