The Early Church: From Jerusalem to the Empire

The explosive growth of Christianity from a small group of frightened disciples hiding in Jerusalem to a movement that transformed the Roman Empire: Empowered by the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, the apostles proclaimed that Jesus had risen from the dead. Despite fierce persecution, the message spread from Jerusalem to Judea, Samaria, and the ends of the earth—exactly as Jesus had prophesied.

Within three centuries, Christianity would move from a persecuted Jewish sect to the official religion of Rome, from hunted believers meeting in homes to triumphant bishops building basilicas. The story involves bold apostles, dramatic conversions, theological controversies, brutal martyrdoms, and miraculous expansion—the story of how a crucified Jewish carpenter from Nazareth became worshiped as Lord and God across the known world.

The Birth of the Church: Pentecost (30 CE)

The Promise of the Spirit

After Jesus’s resurrection, he appeared to his disciples for 40 days, teaching about the Kingdom of God. Before his ascension, he gave them their mission and a promise:

“But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.” (Acts 1:8)

Waiting in Jerusalem

About 120 believers—the eleven apostles (minus Judas, replaced by Matthias), Mary the mother of Jesus, Jesus’s brothers, and other disciples—gathered in an upper room in Jerusalem to pray and wait.

The Day of Pentecost

Fifty days after Passover (when Jesus was crucified), during the Jewish festival of Shavuot (Pentecost), Jerusalem was filled with Jewish pilgrims from across the Roman world.

That morning, as the disciples gathered:

“Suddenly a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting. They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them.” (Acts 2:2-4)

The sound drew a crowd of Jewish pilgrims who were amazed to hear Galilean fishermen speaking in their native languages—Parthians, Medes, Elamites, residents of Mesopotamia, Judea, Cappadocia, Pontus, Asia, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Egypt, Libya, Crete, and Rome.

“How is it that each of us hears them in our native language?” they asked. Some mocked: “They have had too much wine.”

Peter’s Sermon

Peter—who had denied Jesus just seven weeks earlier—stood up boldly and addressed the crowd:

The prophecy fulfilled: “This is what was spoken by the prophet Joel: ‘In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people’” (Acts 2:16-17, quoting Joel 2:28-32).

Jesus’s vindication: Peter proclaimed that:

• Jesus of Nazareth was accredited by God through miracles, wonders, and signs
• He was handed over by God’s purpose and crucified
• God raised him from the dead, breaking death’s power
• David prophesied this resurrection in Psalm 16
• The disciples were eyewitnesses of the resurrection
• Jesus ascended to God’s right hand and poured out the Spirit they were now witnessing

The shocking claim: “Therefore let all Israel be assured of this: God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Messiah.” (Acts 2:36)

The response: “When the people heard this, they were cut to the heart and said to Peter and the other apostles, ‘Brothers, what shall we do?’”

Peter’s call: “Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit.”

The result: About 3,000 people were baptized that day.

The church was born.

The Jerusalem Church (30-34 CE)

A New Community

The Jerusalem church formed a radical new community:

Devoted to:

• The apostles’ teaching
• Fellowship
• Breaking of bread (the Lord’s Supper)
• Prayer

Economic sharing: “All the believers were together and had everything in common. They sold property and possessions to give to anyone who had need.” (Acts 2:44-45)

Daily life: “Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and ate together with glad and sincere hearts, praising God and enjoying the favor of all the people.”

Growth: “And the Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved.”

This early communal experiment (sometimes compared to modern communes) demonstrated the Spirit’s power to create selfless sharing, though it was voluntary, not compulsory.

Signs and Wonders

The apostles performed many signs and wonders:

The lame beggar healed (Acts 3): Peter and John encountered a lame man begging at the temple gate. Peter said:

“Silver or gold I do not have, but what I do have I give you. In the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, walk.” (Acts 3:6)

The man jumped up and walked, creating a sensation. Peter preached to the astonished crowd, leading to 5,000 more believers.

Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5): A couple sold property but secretly kept back part of the proceeds while claiming to give all. Peter, by the Spirit, exposed their deception. Both fell dead on the spot—a sobering demonstration that the Holy Spirit is not mocked.

Mass healings: “People brought the sick into the streets and laid them on beds and mats so that at least Peter’s shadow might fall on some of them as he passed by. Crowds gathered also from the towns around Jerusalem, bringing their sick and those tormented by impure spirits, and all of them were healed.” (Acts 5:15-16)

Opposition Begins

The Sadducees (the priestly party that controlled the temple and denied resurrection) were disturbed by the apostles’ teaching about Jesus’s resurrection. They:

First arrest: Jailed Peter and John overnight, then threatened them and released them (Acts 4)

Second arrest: Imprisoned all the apostles. An angel opened the prison doors, and they resumed preaching in the temple courts. Re-arrested, they stood before the Sanhedrin.

Peter’s response: “We must obey God rather than human beings! The God of our ancestors raised Jesus from the dead—whom you killed by hanging him on a cross. God exalted him to his own right hand as Prince and Savior that he might bring Israel to repentance and forgive their sins.” (Acts 5:29-31)

Gamaliel’s advice: Gamaliel, a respected Pharisee, counseled caution: “If their purpose or activity is of human origin, it will fail. But if it is from God, you will not be able to stop these men; you will only find yourselves fighting against God.” (Acts 5:38-39)

The Sanhedrin had the apostles flogged and ordered them not to speak in Jesus’s name. “The apostles left the Sanhedrin, rejoicing because they had been counted worthy of suffering disgrace for the Name.” (Acts 5:41)

The Seven Deacons

As the church grew, a problem arose: Greek-speaking Jewish widows were being overlooked in the daily food distribution. The Twelve gathered the disciples:

“It would not be right for us to neglect the ministry of the word of God in order to wait on tables. Brothers and sisters, choose seven men from among you who are known to be full of the Spirit and wisdom. We will turn this responsibility over to them and will give our attention to prayer and the ministry of the word.” (Acts 6:2-4)

The church chose seven men, including Stephen and Philip, who were commissioned as the first deacons.

Stephen: The First Martyr (34 CE)

A Man Full of the Spirit

Stephen, one of the seven deacons, “did great wonders and signs among the people.” His wisdom and the Spirit’s power were irresistible in debate.

Opposition arose from the Synagogue of the Freedmen (Cyrenians, Alexandrians, Cilicians, and Asians). Unable to stand against Stephen’s wisdom, they secretly persuaded men to make false accusations: “We have heard Stephen speak blasphemous words against Moses and against God.”

The Trial

Dragged before the Sanhedrin, false witnesses testified: “This fellow never stops speaking against this holy place and against the law. For we have heard him say that this Jesus of Nazareth will destroy this place and change the customs Moses handed down to us.” (Acts 6:13-14)

Stephen’s face: “All who were sitting in the Sanhedrin looked intently at Stephen, and they saw that his face was like the face of an angel.” (Acts 6:15)

Stephen’s Speech

Given the chance to defend himself, Stephen delivered a lengthy sermon (Acts 7) reviewing Israel’s history:

• God appeared to Abraham in Mesopotamia before he lived in Haran
• Joseph was sold by his brothers but God was with him
• Moses was rejected by Israel the first time but became their deliverer
• The Israelites made the golden calf while Moses received the law
• They always resisted the Holy Spirit
• They killed the prophets who predicted the Righteous One’s coming

The accusation: “You stiff-necked people! Your hearts and ears are still uncircumcised. You are just like your ancestors: You always resist the Holy Spirit! Was there ever a prophet your ancestors did not persecute? They even killed those who predicted the coming of the Righteous One. And now you have betrayed and murdered him—you who have received the law that was given through angels but have not obeyed it.” (Acts 7:51-53)

The Vision

“But Stephen, full of the Holy Spirit, looked up to heaven and saw the glory of God, and Jesus standing at the right hand of God. ‘Look,’ he said, ‘I see heaven open and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God.’” (Acts 7:55-56)

The Stoning

Enraged, they covered their ears, rushed at him, dragged him out of the city, and stoned him. The witnesses laid their cloaks at the feet of a young man named Saul.

As the stones struck him, Stephen prayed:

“Lord Jesus, receive my spirit.” Then he fell on his knees and cried out, “Lord, do not hold this sin against them.” When he had said this, he fell asleep. (Acts 7:59-60)

Stephen became Christianity’s first martyr (Greek: martyros, “witness”). His death echoed Jesus’s—praying for his killers, committing his spirit to the Lord.

The Scattering and the Gospel Goes Out (34-40 CE)

The Great Persecution

“On that day a great persecution broke out against the church in Jerusalem, and all except the apostles were scattered throughout Judea and Samaria.” (Acts 8:1)

Saul led the persecution: “Going from house to house, he dragged off both men and women and put them in prison.” (Acts 8:3)

But: “Those who had been scattered preached the word wherever they went.” (Acts 8:4)

Persecution didn’t stop the gospel—it spread it.

Philip in Samaria (Acts 8)

Philip the evangelist went to Samaria (Jews and Samaritans were bitter enemies). He proclaimed Christ, performed miracles, and cast out demons. “There was great joy in that city.”

Peter and John came from Jerusalem to pray for the Samaritan believers to receive the Holy Spirit, confirming that Samaritans—half-breed heretics in Jewish eyes—were fully included in God’s people.

The Ethiopian Eunuch

An angel directed Philip to a desert road where he encountered an Ethiopian eunuch, a high official of the Candace (queen) of Ethiopia, returning from worshiping in Jerusalem. The eunuch was reading Isaiah 53 (the Suffering Servant passage) but didn’t understand it.

Philip explained: “Then Philip began with that very passage of Scripture and told him the good news about Jesus.” (Acts 8:35)

The eunuch believed, was baptized in nearby water, and “went on his way rejoicing.”

This story shows the gospel crossing:

• Racial boundaries (Ethiopian)
• Social boundaries (eunuch—excluded from temple worship)
• Geographic boundaries (Africa)

Paul’s Conversion (34 CE)

The Persecutor

Saul of Tarsus was a Pharisee, trained under Gamaliel, zealous for the law, and determined to destroy the church. He obtained letters from the high priest authorizing him to arrest believers in Damascus and bring them to Jerusalem.

The Damascus Road

On the road to Damascus, suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him:

“Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?” “Who are you, Lord?” Saul asked. “I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting. Now get up and go into the city, and you will be told what you must do.” (Acts 9:4-6)

Saul’s companions heard the sound but saw no one. Saul stood up—blind. They led him to Damascus, where he remained blind for three days, neither eating nor drinking.

Ananias

The Lord spoke in a vision to a disciple in Damascus named Ananias, telling him to go to Saul. Ananias objected: “Lord, I have heard many reports about this man and all the harm he has done to your holy people in Jerusalem.”

But the Lord said: “Go! This man is my chosen instrument to proclaim my name to the Gentiles and their kings and to the people of Israel. I will show him how much he must suffer for my name.” (Acts 9:15-16)

Ananias went, placed his hands on Saul, and said: “Brother Saul, the Lord—Jesus, who appeared to you on the road as you were coming here—has sent me so that you may see again and be filled with the Holy Spirit.”

Immediately, something like scales fell from Saul’s eyes, and he could see. He was baptized and began preaching in the synagogues: “Jesus is the Son of God.”

The transformation: The church’s greatest persecutor became its greatest missionary.

Paul’s Preparation

Paul (his Roman name) spent time in:

• Damascus (where he narrowly escaped being killed by his former allies)
• Arabia (Galatians 1:17—possibly receiving revelation from Christ)
• Three years before returning to Jerusalem (Acts 9:26-30)
• Tarsus and Syria-Cilicia for about 10 years

Barnabas vouched for Paul in Jerusalem when others feared him. The Jerusalem church eventually accepted him.

Peter and the Gentiles (40 CE)

Cornelius’s Vision

In Caesarea, a Roman centurion named Cornelius—a “God-fearer” (Gentile who worshiped Israel’s God without full conversion)—received a vision. An angel told him to send for Peter in Joppa.

Peter’s Vision

The next day, as Cornelius’s messengers approached Joppa, Peter went to the roof to pray and fell into a trance. He saw heaven opened and something like a large sheet descending, filled with all kinds of four-footed animals, reptiles, and birds (unclean animals by Jewish law).

A voice said: “Get up, Peter. Kill and eat.”

Peter replied: “Surely not, Lord! I have never eaten anything impure or unclean.”

The voice spoke again: “Do not call anything impure that God has made clean.” (Acts 10:15)

This happened three times.

The Revelation

As Peter puzzled over the vision, Cornelius’s messengers arrived. The Spirit told Peter: “Go with them, for I have sent them.”

When Peter arrived at Cornelius’s house (a violation of Jewish purity laws to enter a Gentile home), the centurion fell at his feet. Peter raised him up: “Stand up; I am only a man myself.”

Peter understood: “God has shown me that I should not call anyone impure or unclean… I now realize how true it is that God does not show favoritism but accepts from every nation the one who fears him and does what is right.” (Acts 10:28, 34-35)

Gentile Pentecost

As Peter preached about Jesus, “the Holy Spirit came on all who heard the message. The circumcised believers who had come with Peter were astonished that the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out even on Gentiles. For they heard them speaking in tongues and praising God.” (Acts 10:44-46)

Peter said: “Surely no one can stand in the way of their being baptized with water. They have received the Holy Spirit just as we have.” (Acts 10:47)

Cornelius and his household were baptized—the first Gentiles to enter the church without first becoming Jewish proselytes.

Controversy in Jerusalem

When Peter returned to Jerusalem, the circumcised believers criticized him: “You went into the house of uncircumcised men and ate with them.”

Peter explained his vision and what happened: “If God gave them the same gift he gave us who believed in the Lord Jesus Christ, who was I to think that I could stand in God’s way?”

“When they heard this, they had no further objections and praised God, saying, ‘So then, even to Gentiles God has granted repentance that leads to life.’” (Acts 11:18)

The question of Gentile inclusion was settled in principle—though it would create ongoing controversy.

The Antioch Church (40-47 CE)

A New Center

Scattered believers reached Antioch in Syria and began preaching to Greeks (Gentiles). “The Lord’s hand was with them, and a great number of people believed and turned to the Lord.” (Acts 11:21)

Jerusalem sent Barnabas to investigate. When he saw God’s grace at work, he rejoiced and encouraged them. “Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for Saul, and when he found him, he brought him to Antioch.” (Acts 11:25-26)

For a year, Barnabas and Paul taught great numbers. “The disciples were called Christians first at Antioch.”

Antioch became the first major Gentile church and the launching point for world mission.

James’s Martyrdom and Peter’s Escape (44 CE)

King Herod Agrippa I arrested some believers. He had James the son of Zebedee (one of the Twelve) executed with the sword—the first apostle martyred.

When this pleased the Jews, he arrested Peter during Passover, intending to execute him after the festival. Peter was chained between two soldiers in a heavily guarded cell.

The church prayed earnestly. The night before his trial, an angel appeared, struck Peter on the side to wake him, and said “Quick, get up!” The chains fell off. Peter followed the angel out—through locked doors that opened by themselves—thinking he was having a vision.

When Peter realized it was real, he went to the house where believers were praying. A servant girl named Rhoda answered his knock, but in her excitement, she ran back to tell the others without opening the door, leaving Peter standing outside knocking.

When they finally let him in, “they were astonished” (Acts 12:16). Peter explained how the Lord had rescued him, then left for another place.

Morning came; the guards couldn’t find Peter. Herod executed them. Shortly after, Herod was struck down by an angel for not giving glory to God, “and he was eaten by worms and died.” (Acts 12:23)

Paul’s Missionary Journeys (47-58 CE)

First Missionary Journey (47-48 CE)

The Holy Spirit said to the Antioch church: “Set apart for me Barnabas and Saul for the work to which I have called them.” (Acts 13:2)

They laid hands on them and sent them off with John Mark:

Cyprus: Barnabas’s homeland; converted the proconsul Sergius Paulus after Paul struck the sorcerer Elymas blind

Pisidian Antioch: Paul preached in the synagogue; many believed, but Jews opposed them; “We now turn to the Gentiles” (Acts 13:46)

Iconium, Lystra, Derbe: Preaching, miracles, persecution

• At Lystra, after Paul healed a crippled man, pagans tried to worship Paul and Barnabas as gods (Zeus and Hermes)
• Jews from Antioch and Iconium came and stoned Paul, leaving him for dead
• He got up and continued preaching

Pattern established: Preach first to Jews in the synagogue; when rejected, turn to Gentiles; plant churches; appoint elders; return to Antioch

The Jerusalem Council (49 CE)

Some Jewish believers came to Antioch teaching: “Unless you are circumcised, according to the custom taught by Moses, you cannot be saved.” (Acts 15:1)

This sparked “sharp dispute and debate” with Paul and Barnabas. The church sent them to Jerusalem to settle the matter.

The debate: Some Pharisaic believers insisted: “The Gentiles must be circumcised and required to keep the law of Moses.”

Peter’s testimony: “God, who knows the heart, showed that he accepted [the Gentiles] by giving the Holy Spirit to them, just as he did to us. He did not discriminate between us and them, for he purified their hearts by faith. Now then, why do you try to test God by putting on the necks of Gentiles a yoke that neither we nor our ancestors have been able to bear? No! We believe it is through the grace of our Lord Jesus that we are saved, just as they are.” (Acts 15:8-11)

Paul and Barnabas’s report: Testified to the miracles God had done among the Gentiles through them

James’s decision: James the brother of Jesus (leader of the Jerusalem church) concluded:

“It is my judgment, therefore, that we should not make it difficult for the Gentiles who are turning to God. Instead we should write to them, telling them to abstain from food polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood.” (Acts 15:19-20)

The decree: Gentiles did NOT need to be circumcised or keep the Mosaic law. They only needed to:

• Abstain from food sacrificed to idols
• Abstain from sexual immorality
• Avoid eating blood or strangled animals

This was a watershed moment: Christianity would not be a Jewish sect requiring conversion to Judaism. It would be a universal faith accessible to all.

Second Missionary Journey (49-52 CE)

Paul and Silas revisited the churches from the first journey, then:

Timothy joins: In Lystra, Paul recruited young Timothy, whose mother was Jewish but father Greek

Macedonian call: Paul had a vision of a man from Macedonia saying “Come over and help us.” They concluded God was calling them to Europe.

Philippi: First European city evangelized

• Lydia, a dealer in purple cloth, and her household believed and were baptized
• Paul cast a demon out of a slave girl used for fortune-telling; her owners had Paul and Silas beaten and imprisoned
• At midnight, Paul and Silas prayed and sang hymns; an earthquake shook the prison, opening all the doors
• The jailer, thinking prisoners had escaped, was about to kill himself when Paul stopped him
• “Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved—you and your household” (Acts 16:31)
• The jailer and his household were baptized

Thessalonica, Berea: Preaching in synagogues; mixed reception

Athens: Paul preached on the Areopagus (Mars Hill):

“People of Athens! I see that in every way you are very religious. For as I walked around and looked carefully at your objects of worship, I even found an altar with this inscription: TO AN UNKNOWN GOD. So you are ignorant of the very thing you worship—and this is what I am going to proclaim to you.” (Acts 17:22-23)

He proclaimed the Creator, resurrection, and coming judgment. Some sneered at resurrection; others believed, including Dionysius the Areopagite and Damaris.

Corinth: Paul stayed 18 months, making tents with Aquila and Priscilla, preaching in the synagogue, then founding a largely Gentile church

Third Missionary Journey (53-58 CE)

Ephesus: Paul spent over two years in this major city:

• “God did extraordinary miracles through Paul, so that even handkerchiefs and aprons that had touched him were taken to the sick, and their illnesses were cured and the evil spirits left them.” (Acts 19:11-12)
• Seven sons of Sceva, a Jewish chief priest, tried to exorcise demons using Jesus’s name without believing; the demon-possessed man overpowered all seven, and they fled naked and bleeding
• Many believers publicly burned their magic scrolls (worth 50,000 drachmas—about 50,000 days’ wages!)
• A riot erupted when silversmiths who made Artemis idols feared losing business; the crowd shouted “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!” for two hours

Return to Jerusalem: Despite warnings from prophets (including Agabus, who symbolically bound his own hands and feet with Paul’s belt), Paul was determined to go to Jerusalem for Pentecost.

Paul’s Arrest and Journey to Rome (58-60 CE)

Arrest in Jerusalem (58 CE)

When Paul arrived in Jerusalem, James and the elders welcomed him but warned that thousands of Jewish believers still kept the law and had heard Paul was teaching Jews to abandon Moses.

To prove he honored the law, they suggested Paul sponsor four men taking a Nazirite vow in the temple. Paul agreed.

But Jews from Asia saw him in the temple and stirred up the crowd: “This is the man who teaches everyone everywhere against our people and our law and this place” (Acts 21:28). They falsely claimed he’d brought Gentiles into the temple.

The crowd seized Paul and dragged him from the temple, intending to kill him. Roman soldiers rescued him and arrested him.

Trials and Appeals

Paul was tried before:

• The Sanhedrin (where he divided them by claiming to be on trial for believing in resurrection)
• Felix the governor (who kept Paul imprisoned for two years hoping for a bribe)
• Festus (the new governor)
• King Herod Agrippa II (before whom Paul gave his testimony)

When Festus suggested returning Paul to Jerusalem for trial, Paul used his Roman citizenship: “I appeal to Caesar!” (Acts 25:11)

Agrippa told Festus: “This man could have been set free if he had not appealed to Caesar.” (Acts 26:32)

The Voyage to Rome (60-61 CE)

Paul was sent to Rome under guard. The voyage was perilous:

• Storm and shipwreck on Malta
• Paul was bitten by a viper but unharmed (locals first thought he was a murderer getting divine justice, then changed their minds and thought he was a god)
• Paul healed Publius’s father and many others on the island

They finally reached Rome, where Paul was allowed to live by himself under house arrest with a soldier guarding him.

Paul in Rome (61-63+ CE)

For two years, Paul remained under house arrest:

• Received all who came to him
• Proclaimed the kingdom of God
• Taught about Jesus Christ “with all boldness and without hindrance” (Acts 28:31)

Acts ends with Paul in Rome, still awaiting trial. Tradition holds:

• Paul was released after his first trial
• He may have traveled to Spain (as he’d hoped, per Romans 15:24)
• He was re-arrested under Nero’s persecution
• He was beheaded in Rome around 64-67 CE

Peter, according to tradition, was also martyred in Rome under Nero (crucified upside down at his own request, feeling unworthy to die like Jesus).

The Spread Continues (60-100 CE)

The Apostles’ Later Ministries

While Acts follows Paul, tradition records other apostles’ activities:

John: Ministered in Ephesus; exiled to Patmos where he received the vision of Revelation; returned to Ephesus and died of old age (the only apostle not martyred)

Thomas: Tradition places him in India, where he founded churches; martyred there

Andrew: Preached in Scythia and Greece; crucified on an X-shaped cross in Patras

Philip: Ministered in Asia Minor; martyred in Hierapolis

Matthew: Various traditions place him in Ethiopia, Persia, or Syria

Most apostles: Martyred for their faith

The Fall of Jerusalem (70 CE)

The Temple’s destruction by Rome in 70 CE had profound effects:

• Jewish Christianity (centered in Jerusalem) declined
• Gentile Christianity became dominant
• Christianity’s separation from Judaism accelerated
• No temple meant no sacrifices—Judaism and Christianity both had to adapt

The New Testament Writings

During this period, the New Testament books were written:

Paul’s letters (50-67 CE): Thessalonians, Galatians, Corinthians, Romans, Prison Epistles (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon), Pastoral Epistles (Timothy, Titus)

Gospels (65-100 CE):

• Mark: Circa 65-70 CE (likely the first)
• Matthew: Circa 80-90 CE
• Luke: Circa 80-90 CE (also Acts)
• John: Circa 90-100 CE

Other letters: Hebrews, James, 1-2 Peter, 1-2-3 John, Jude

Revelation: Circa 95 CE, written by John during exile on Patmos

These documents would later be recognized as Scripture alongside the Hebrew Bible.

Persecution and Growth (64-313 CE)

Nero’s Persecution (64-68 CE)

In 64 CE, fire destroyed much of Rome. Nero blamed Christians. Tacitus, the Roman historian, wrote:

“Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians… Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired.”

This was the first imperial persecution. Both Peter and Paul likely died in this period.

Sporadic Persecutions (64-250 CE)

For the next two centuries, persecution was:

• Localized: Dependent on local governors and mob violence
• Intermittent: Not constant empire-wide campaigns
• Legal but not actively pursued: Christianity was illegal, but emperors generally didn’t seek out Christians

Notable persecutions:

• Domitian (81-96 CE): Brief persecution, exiled John to Patmos
• Trajan (98-117 CE): “Don’t seek them out, but if accused and convicted, punish them”
• Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE): Martyrs included Polycarp (burned at stake at age 86) and the martyrs of Lyon and Vienne

Reasons for Persecution

Romans found Christians suspicious:

• Atheism: Refused to worship Roman gods or the emperor
• Disloyalty: Wouldn’t participate in civic religious duties
• Antisocial: Met secretly, didn’t attend public festivals
• Immoral: Rumors spread of cannibalism (misunderstanding the Lord’s Supper) and incest (calling each other “brother” and “sister”)
• Subversive: Proclaimed another king (Jesus) above Caesar

The Great Persecutions (250-313 CE)

Decius (249-251 CE): First empire-wide systematic persecution

• Required all citizens to sacrifice to Roman gods and obtain a certificate
• Many Christians complied (lapsed); others fled; some were martyred
• Created controversy: Should the “lapsed” be readmitted to the church?

Valerian (257-260 CE): Targeted clergy and wealthy Christians

Diocletian (303-311 CE): The “Great Persecution”

• Destroyed church buildings and Christian scriptures
• Arrested clergy
• Required all to sacrifice to the gods
• Most severe in the East; less enforced in the West

Many martyrs’ stories inspired later Christians:

• Perpetua and Felicity: Young mothers trampled by animals and killed by gladiators (203 CE)
• Lawrence: Roasted on a gridiron; supposedly joked “Turn me over, I’m done on this side”

“The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church” (Tertullian): Persecution didn’t destroy Christianity but spread it through martyrs’ witness.

Early Church Fathers and Theology (100-325 CE)

While persecution continued, Christian thinkers developed theology:

Apostolic Fathers (90-150 CE)

Early leaders who knew the apostles or their immediate successors:

• Clement of Rome: Wrote to Corinth urging unity (96 CE)
• Ignatius of Antioch: Wrote seven letters while being taken to Rome for martyrdom; emphasized church unity and the Eucharist
• Polycarp: Bishop of Smyrna, disciple of John; martyred at 86

Apologists (130-180 CE)

Defended Christianity against intellectual attacks:

• Justin Martyr: Philosopher who converted; wrote defenses of Christianity; martyred in Rome (165 CE)
• Irenaeus: Combated Gnosticism; emphasized apostolic succession

Theologians (180-325 CE)

Developed systematic Christian thought:

• Tertullian: North African; first major Latin theologian; coined the word “Trinity”
• Origen: Alexandrian; prolific scholar; allegorical biblical interpretation
• Cyprian: Bishop of Carthage; martyred (258 CE)

Controversies

Early Christians debated:

• Canon: Which books are Scripture? (settled by 4th century)
• Christology: How is Jesus both God and man?
• Trinity: How are Father, Son, and Spirit one God yet three persons?
• Church authority: Who decides doctrine?
• Penance: Can post-baptismal sins be forgiven?

Constantine and the Edict of Milan (313 CE)

The Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 CE)

In 312 CE, Constantine marched on Rome to challenge Maxentius for control of the Western Empire. Before the battle, Constantine reportedly had a vision:

A cross in the sky with the words “In this sign, conquer” (or in Greek, “By this, conquer”).

Constantine had his soldiers paint the Christian Chi-Rho symbol (☧, first two letters of “Christ” in Greek) on their shields. He won the battle decisively.

The Edict of Milan (313 CE)

Constantine and Licinius (Eastern emperor) issued the Edict of Milan:

“We grant both to Christians and to all others full liberty of following that religion which each may choose… so that the Divinity… may in all things afford us his customary favor and benevolence.”

Effects:

• Christianity became legal
• Confiscated Christian property returned
• Christians could worship openly
• Persecution ended (in the West immediately, in the East by 324 CE when Constantine defeated Licinius)

A New Era

With Constantine’s favor:

• Church buildings were constructed (basilicas)
• Bishops gained political influence
• Sunday became a day of rest
• The cross became a public Christian symbol

But new problems arose:

• Nominal Christians (joining for political advantage)
• Church-state entanglement
• Luxury replacing simplicity
• Political power corrupting spiritual focus

Within 80 years, under Theodosius I (380 CE), Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, and pagan worship was outlawed.

From persecuted to persecutor: Christianity moved from hunted minority to imperial majority—a transformation with both benefits and costs.

In Christianity: The Apostolic Foundation

Christianity views the early church as the foundational period:

Normative model: The Jerusalem church’s devotion to teaching, fellowship, breaking of bread, and prayer (Acts 2:42) remains the pattern

Apostolic authority: The apostles’ teaching (preserved in the New Testament) is authoritative for all generations

Holy Spirit’s power: Pentecost demonstrates the Spirit’s ongoing presence in the church

Mission paradigm: From Jerusalem to the ends of the earth—missions remain central

Unity in diversity: The Jerusalem Council’s decision shows how to maintain unity while respecting differences

Suffering expected: Jesus promised persecution; the early church’s experience confirms this

In Judaism: A Breakaway Sect

Judaism views the early church as:

A Jewish sect that became something else: Initially one movement within diverse Second Temple Judaism, it eventually separated

False messianism: Jesus didn’t fulfill messianic expectations (no political liberation, no rebuilt Temple, no universal peace)

Apostasy: Claiming Jesus was divine violated monotheism

Gentile takeover: The movement that began as Jewish became increasingly Gentile, abandoning Torah observance

Historical tragedy: Christianity’s later persecution of Jews (once Christians gained power) made it a source of immense suffering

In Islam: Corrupted Message

Islam views the early church period as:

Isa (Jesus) as prophet: Jesus was a great prophet sent to the Israelites, performing miracles by God’s permission

Misunderstood message: Jesus taught pure monotheism (Tawhid), but his followers corrupted his message

False doctrines added: The Trinity, Jesus’s divinity, and the crucifixion (Islam teaches Jesus wasn’t crucified but was raised to heaven) are human inventions, not Jesus’s teaching

Paul’s influence: Some Muslim scholars blame Paul for moving Christianity away from Jesus’s original message

Awaiting Jesus’s return: Islam teaches Jesus will return before the Day of Judgment

Legacy: From Upper Room to Empire

In three centuries, Christianity exploded from 120 frightened disciples in Jerusalem to millions across the Roman Empire:

30 CE: Jesus ascends; 120 believers wait in Jerusalem 33 CE: Pentecost; 3,000 baptized in one day; church born 34 CE: Stephen martyred; gospel spreads to Judea and Samaria 40 CE: Gentiles (Cornelius) receive the Spirit 49 CE: Jerusalem Council—Gentiles fully included without circumcision 50-67 CE: Paul’s missionary journeys; churches planted across Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome 70 CE: Jerusalem and Temple destroyed; Christianity increasingly Gentile 64-313 CE: Intermittent persecution; martyrs’ witness; theology develops 313 CE: Edict of Milan—Christianity legal 325 CE: Council of Nicea—first ecumenical council defining orthodox Christology 380 CE: Christianity becomes the Roman Empire’s official religion

From persecuted to privileged: The movement grew despite (or because of?) opposition

Theological development: From oral tradition to written Gospels; from apostolic teaching to systematic theology

Geographic spread: From Jerusalem to Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and beyond; from Jewish heartland to Gentile world

Social composition: From poor fishermen to wealthy patrons; from slaves to aristocrats

Institutional growth: From house churches to basilicas; from charismatic leaders to hierarchical bishops

The irony: The carpenter from Galilee whom Rome crucified as a rebel became worshiped by Rome’s emperors. The Jewish sect that began in an upper room became the religion of the empire that destroyed Jerusalem.

The early church’s story is the story of the impossible: A message of a crucified Messiah conquering an empire built on power. The cross defeating the sword. Death leading to life. Weakness proving stronger than strength.

From Pentecost to Milan, from the upper room to the Eternal City, from Peter’s first sermon to Constantine’s chi-rho, the early church fulfilled Jesus’s prophecy: “You will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.”

The ends of the earth were being reached. The movement that began with fishermen, tax collectors, and a few women would transform the world.